BOOKSELLERS 
'ASH  AVENUE 


LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

ClMS 


A    PRACTICAL    GUIDE 


TO 


MEAT     INSPECTION 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE 


TO 


MEAT  INSPECTION 

k  (WALLEY) 


RE-WRITTEN  AND   ENLARGED 
BY 

STEWART   STOCKMAN,    M.R.C.V.S 

PROFESSOR    OF    PATHOLOGY 

LECTURER   ON    HYGIENE   AND    MEAT   INSPECTION 
DICK   VETERINARY   COLLEGE,    EDINBURGH 


WITH  ILL  USTRA  TIONS 


NEW  YORK 
WILLIAM  E.   JENKINS 

VETERINARY  PUBLISHER  AND   BOOKSELLER 
851  AND  853  SIXTH  AVENUE 

1902 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FOURTH    EDITION 


IN  preparing  the  Fourth  Edition  of  this  book,  the  original  in- 
tention of  the  Editor  was  to  follow  on  the  lines  usually  adopted 
in  such  an  undertaking. 

After  various  attempts,  however,  he  saw  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  carry  this  out  with  any  success,  and  he  decided 
to  re-wTite  and  enlarge  the  whole  book. 

Those  who  were  acquainted  with  the  former  editions  of 
Walley's  "  MEAT  INSPECTION,"  will  hardly  recognise  the  Fourth 
Edition  as  a  direct  lineal  descendant.  Nevertheless  the  Editor 
wishes  to  acknowledge  that  the  new  edition  is  indebted  to 
the  old  for  much  useful  information,  and  that  he  himself  must 
ever  remember  with  gratitude  the  valuable  personal  instruction 
on  the  subject  of  Meat  Inspection  which  he  received  from  the 
late  Professor  Walley. 

In  order  to  perform  the  higher  duties  of  a  Meat  Inspector  — 
the  Editor  is  of  opinion  that  veterinary  surgeons  should  not 
condescend  to  what  might  be  called  the  policeman's  part 
—  a  considerable  knowledge  of  Comparative  Pathology,  in- 
cluding those  branches  of  the  subject  termed  Bacteriology  and 
Parasitology,  is  necessary.  It  must  be  understood,  however, 
that  in  no  sense  does  the  Editor  claim  for  the  Fourth  Edition 
that  it  is  a  text-book  of  Pathology,  Bacteriology,  or  Parasit- 
ology. His  object  has  been  to  introduce  just  so  much  of  each 
as  is  necessary  to  enable  the  veterinary  student  to  understand 
the  nature  of  the  morbid  changes  with  which  he  is  likely  to 
meet  in  the  abattoirs.  To  keep  the  book  within  reasonable 


101839 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION 


THE  Author  of  this  little  work  desires  to  express  his  thanks 
to  Professor  M'Fadyean  for  the  lucid  description  given  by  him 
of  the  micro-organisms  of  Anthrax,  Black  Quarter,  Tuber- 
culosis, and  Actinomycosis  ;  to  Dr.  Klein  for  the  kind  permission, 
readily  granted  by  him,  to  use  his  Plates  on  the  micro-organism 
of  Anthrax,  Black  Quarter,  and  Tuberculosis  respectively; 
to  Mr.  T.  P.  Young,  M.R.C.  V.S.,  for  his  assistance  in  the  general 
preparation  of  the  work,  and  more  particularly  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  index.  The  Author  also  wishes  to  solicit  the  indulg- 
ence of  his  readers  for  any  imperfections  and  irregularities 
that  may  exist  in  the  text,  as,  owing  to  circumstances  over 
which  he  had  no  control,  many  interruptions  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  work  had  occurred,  and  these  have  delayed  its 
publication  and  interfered  with  the  order  of  sequence  of  the 
different  articles.  Thus,  since  the  articles  on  Tetanus,  Pleuro- 
Pneumonia,  and  Diphtheria  were  penned,  micro-organisms 
have  been  discovered  as  the  causal  entity  in  each  disease  by 
different  pathologists ;  and  on  re-perusal  of  the  finished 
proofs  several  discrepancies  in  the  matter  of  sequence  have 
come  under  the  Author's  notice.  These  shortcomings  will 
not,  he  hopes,  detract  from  the  general  value  of  his  work, 
nor  make  it  the  less  acceptable  to  those  interested  in  the 
matter  of  Meat  Inspection. 

February  1890. 

viii 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION       '   : ''          .  .        M'.  ~         .    v-vii 

PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION.  .        ;:•»  .     ;.<...       ;    » 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS      . 

INTRODUCTION 

HISTORICAL 

Development  of  Meat  Inspection — Statutory  Provisions  in  regard  to  the 

Duties  of  Meat  Inspectors         .  .  .  .  .  .1-18 

METHOD  OF  INSPECTION 

Method — Difference  in  Carcases,  Flesh,  and  Organs  referable  to  Species, 
Sex,  and  Age  —  Methods  of  preparing  Tissues  for  Microscopical 
Examination  .  .  '  .  .  .  ,.  .  .-  .  19-43 

GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS 

Infiltrations  —  Degenerations  —  Necrosis  —  Neoplasms  —  Fevered  Flesh — 
Wounds —Rupture  of  (Esophagus — Suffocation — Fatigue — Alteration 
in  the  Flesh  produced  by  Drugs — The  Influence  of  the  Food  .  .  44-61 

POST-MORTEM  CHANGES  IN  FLESH 

Putrefaction — Phosphorescent  Meat— Mouldy  Flesh  .  .  .  62-66 

INFLAMMATORY  DISEASES 

Pneumonia — Pleurisy  —  Peritonitis — Pericarditis  —  Endocarditis — Neph- 
ritis— Osteitis — Inspection  in  the  case  of  Inflammatory  Diseases  .  67-72 

ix 


CONTENTS 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD 

PAGE 

Ansemia — Leucocythsemia — Red  Water — Urticaria  .  .  .  73-78 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES 

Tuberculosis — Bacterial  Pseudo-tuberculosis — Actinomycosis — Glanders — 
Diseases  characterised  by  Suppuration — Navel-Ill— Joint-Ill — Botryo- 
mycosis — Mamraitis  —  Septic  Metritis — Diphtheria — Aspergillosis — 
Bacterial  Necrosis  —  Swine  Fever  —  Swine  Erysipelas  —  Contagious 
Pneumonia  of  Swine — Contagious  Pleuro-Pneumonia  of  Cattle — Foot 
and  Mouth  Disease — Variola — Cattle  Plague — Malignant  Catarrh  of 
the  Ox — Malignant  Catarrh  of  the  Sheep — Anthrax  —  Malignant 
(Edema  —  Black  Quarter  —  Red  Braxy  —  Tetanus*'—  Rabies  —  Fowl 
Cholera — Diarrhoea  in  Young  Animals— Dermatomycosis  .  79-185 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES 

Texas^ever — Sarcosporidse — Coccidiosis — Cestodes — Measles — Cysticercus 
Tenuicollis  —  Cysticercus  Pisiformis  —  Echinococcus  Veterinorum — 
Coenurus  Cerebralis — Coenurus  Serialis — Tseniae — Trematodes — Disto- 
matosis  —  Bilharzia  Bo  vis  —  Amphistoma  Conicum  —  Nematodes  — 
Trich^inosis  —  Ascarides  —  Echinorhynchus  Gigas  —  (Esophagostoma 
Columbianum — Eustrongylus  Gigas— Strongyli  of  Hoose — Insects — 
Mange  —  Bots  or  Warbles  —  Maggots  —  Phthiriasis  or  Lousiness  — 
Ixodidse — Pentastoma  Denticulatum  .  186-269 


UNCLASSED  DISEASES 
Milk  Fever — Louping  111 — Rickets — Osteo-porosis  .  .  .  274-281 

FOOD  POISONING  IN  MAN   -.  .  274-281 

BlBLIOGKAPHY  ........         283 

INDEX  .  291 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES 

PLATE  FACING 

I'AOE 

I.  HIND  QUARTER  OF  BULLOCK          .            .            .  23 

II.  HIND  QUARTER  OF  HEIFER  .  .  .  .  .24 

III.  HIND  QUARTER  OF  Cow     ......  26 

IV.  TUBERCLE  OF  PLEURA         ......  90 

,,           ,,          POSITION  OF  INFERIOR  BORDER  OF  LUNG  OF  Cow     .  90 

,,           ,,         LYMPHATIC  GLAND  (BRONCHIAL)  OF  Cow       .            .  90 

V.  EXTERNAL    SURFACE   OF    A    LOBE    OF    THE    LIVER  OF  A  HEN 

(TUBERCLE)        .            .            .            .            .  97 

VI.  COILS  OF  INTESTINES  OF  A  HEN  (TUBERCLE)        .            .  ;        98 
VII.  PHOTOGRAPH  OF  ABDOMINAL  AND  THORACIC  SURFACE  OF  THE 

CARCASE  OF  A  Cow  (TUBERCLE)          .            .            .  .94 

VIII.  ACTINOMYCOSIS  ORGANISM  .           .           .           .           .  .111 

,,     HEAD  OF  HEN,  WITH  MOUTH  OPEN  (DIPHTHERIA)           .  .      138 

IX.  PORTION  OF  TONGUE  OF  Ox  (ACTINOMYCOSIS)      .            .  113 

X.  SEPTUM  NASI  GLANDERS     .           .           .           .           .  .'118 

XI.  GROUP  OF  GLANDERS  ULCERS  ON  INNER  SURFACE  OF  ANTERIOR 

AND  UPPER  PART  OF  NOSTRIL  OF  HORSE      .            ^  ,      117 

XII.  EXTERNAL  SURFACE  OF  EAR  OF  PIG  (SWINE  FEVER)      .  .      147 

,,     ILEO-OECAL  VALVE  OF  YOUNG  PIG  (NORMAL)       .            .  ,,.      147 

XIII.  SECTION  OF  LYMPHATIC  GLAND  (SwiNE  FEVER)  .            .  .       149 
,,     ECCHYMOSIS  ON  THE  ENDOCARDIUM  OF  PlG  (SWINE  FEVER)       .      149 
,,     SECTION  THROUGH  MUSCLE  OF  PIG  (SWINE  FEVER)         .  .      149 

XIV.  PORTION  OF  THIRD  STOMACH  OF  Cow       . ....         .            .  .      164 

„     SECTION  OF  FOURTH  STOMACH  OF  Cow     .            .            .  .      164 

xi 


xii  LIST  OF  ILL  USTRA  TIONS 

FIGURES 

FIG.  PAGE 

Actinomycosis,  superior  maxilla  of  ox      .             .             .  .15  114 

Adenoma,  section  of  (Reichert,  obj.  3)                   .             .  •     .         7  52 

Amphistoma  conicum  in  rumen  of  ox                     .             .  .       60  232 

Anthrax  bacilli  from  blood  (Leitz,  oil  immersion.     r\)    .  .24  166 

Bacillus  mallei  in  pus  (oil  immersion,  T^)            .             .  .16  117 

Bacterial  necrosis,  section  of  liver  showing  lesions  of       .  .18  144 

Balbiania  gigantea,  falciform  corpuscles  of                        .  .31  189 

,,              ,,         oesophagus  of  sheep  showing .             .  .       33  191 

Black  Quarter,  bacillus  of,  from  muscle  (Zeiss  oil  imm.  TV)      .       26  172 

Carcinoma,  section  of  (Reichert,  obj.  3)    .             .             .  .6  51 

Cavernous  spaces  in  liver  of  ox  (Leitz,  obj.  3)       .             .  .57  228 
Cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  showing  new  tissue  and  bile  capillaries 

(Reichert,  obj.  3)                     .             .             .             .  .56  227 

CoccicUa  from  the  liver       .             .             .             .             .  .34  193 

,,        in  liver  and  lesions  (micro. )         .             .             .  .36  194 

,,        in  lamb's  intestines  and  lesions  (micro.) .             .  .37  195 

,,        nodules  in  liver  of  rabbit              .             .             .  .35  193 

Oosnurus  cerebralis,  brain  of  lamb  with  passages  of.     Nat.  size    .       54  222 

,,               ,,          heads  of                      .             .             .  .53  221 

Cysticcrcus  bovis,  evaginated  head  of         .             .             .  .38  199 

,,           ,,      in  heart  of  ox     .             .             .             .  .42  205 

,,           ,,      in  hind  quarter  of  ox      .             .             .  .43  206 

,,           ,,      in  muscle            .             .             .             .  .41  204 

,,         celluloses  from  pig  after  digestion        .             .  .39  200 

,,         tenuicollis        .             .             .             .             .  .44  211 

,,        pisiformis,  body  and  evaginated  head  of        .  .47  214 

,,                 ,,           head  of      .             .             .             .  .46  214 

Demodex  of  pig.      x  250  .             .             .             .             .  .71  258 

Distoma,  larval,  in  muscle  of  pig .             .             .             .  .58  229 

Distomum  h&matobium,  male  and  female              .             .  .59  231 

,,         hepaticum.     Nat.  size .        .(..,,             .             .  .       55  225 

Echinococciis  multilocularis.     Nat.  size    .             .             .  .50  216 

,,           racemosus.     Nat.  size           '."''          .             .  .       49  216 

,,           veterinomm,  diagram  showing  development  of        .       48  215 

,,                      ,,         liver  of  pig  affected  with          .  .       52  218 

,,                     ,,          scolices  of  (Reichert,  obj.  7)     .  .       51  217 

Ecliinorliynchus  gigas,  head  of.      x  10                  .             .  .       63  246 

,,                 ,,      (male)  attached  to  intestine           .  .  •     64  246 

Foot  and  mouth  disease,  tongue  and  pad  of  ox  showing  lesions  of  .22  157 

,,             ,,               foot  of  ox  affected  with    .             .  .23  158 

Forceps       ........         3  42 

Glanders,  microscopical  section  of  nodule             .             .  .17  119 

ffsematopinus  eurysternus  (female)  of  ox.      x  20  .             .  .73  264 

,,            tenuirostris  (female)  of  ox.      x  20  .             .  .74  264 


LIST  OF  ILL  USTRA  TIONS  xiii 

FIG.  PAGE 

Linguatula  tcenioides,  pupa  of       .             .             .             .           -.77  267 

Lipoma,  section  of,  from  intestines           .             .             .             .5  50 

Malignant  cedema,  bacillus  of.      x  1000  .             . .         -.  '          .       25  169 

Meischer's  tubes  and  kidney-shaped  bodies           .--•          .             .30  189 

Melopliagus  ovinus             .            .            «            ..             .             .76  265 

Microtome,  Cathcart  freezing                      ,  .                                              1  42 

(Esoiihagostoma  Columbianum,  lesions  caused  by  .             .             .65  248 

Pentastomum  denticulatum            .            .             .   •         .             .78  268 

,,                      ,,            in  lung  of  rabbit         .             .            .*      79  268 

Pleuro-pneumonia,  contagious,  section  of  lung  showing  lesions  of  .       21  154 

Pseudo-tuberculosis,  bacillus  of.      x  1000             .             .             .14  109 

,,  (parasitic)   in   lung  of  sheep,  disseminated 

lesion                                                             ;       66  251 

,,                  (parasitic)  nodule  (Reichert,  obj.  3)  .             .67  252 

Rainey's  tubes,      x  40                    ,             .             .             .             .32  190 

Reagent  bottles      .             .            .             .  -         .             .             .         2  42 

Sar  copies  scabiei     .            .             .             .             .         ..             .70  257 

Sarcoptic  mange  on  head  of  sheep              .             .             .             .72  259 

Staining  dish          .......         4  42 

Strongylus  rufcscens,  fibroid  pneumonia  caused  by            *            .       69  254 

,,                ,,         eggs  and  embryos  in  lung  of  sheep  .             ,       68  253 

Swine  fever,  bacillus  of  (Zeiss,  oil  immersion,  rV)             .    .         .19  146 

,,         ,,      ulcers  on  large  intestine         .             .  '         .             .20  147 

Teenia  marginata,  booklets  of       .            .             .             .  .'         .45  212 

,,      solium,             ,,          „                    .             .            .             .       40  200 

Tetanus,  bacillus  of  (Reichert,  oil  immersion,  T\)             .             .       27  176 
Texas  fever,  parasites  of,  in  red  blood  cells           .             .            .29  187 
Tinea  tonsurans,  hair  of  horse,  showing  the  trycophyton  para- 
site     ...             .             .             .             .             .             .28  183 

Trichina  spiralis,  embryo,  intermediate  form,  and  sexual  form  .       61  237 

Trichinosed  pork,      x  45 .             .                          .            .             .62  240 

Trichodectes  scalaris  (female)  of  ox.      x  20           .            .             .       75  265 

Tubercle,  bacillus  of.      x  1000     .             .             .            .  -           .8  85 

,,        chronic  of  udder,  section  (Reichert,  obj.  3)       .             .       11  100 

,,        miliary  in  lung  (nat.  size)          .             .             .             .10  94 

,,        of  muscle,  hind  quarter  of  pig  .             .             .             .13  102 

„        of  vertebra          ......       12  101 

Tuberculous  nodule  in  lung  of  cow  (Reichert,  obj.  3)                    .9  88 


MEAT    INSPECTION 


INTRODUCTION 

HISTORICAL 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION1 

IN  approaching  this  subject,  much  of  which  is  buried  in  religious 
antiquity,  I  do  not  mean  to  pose  as  a  biblical  scholar.  One 
may,  however,  be  allowed  to  take  at  least  an  amateur's  interest 
in  the  customs  of  early  civilisation  in  the  East,  whence  have 
emanated  many  of  the  rules  devised  for  the  health  of  our  souls, 
and  some  of  those  elaborated  for  that  of  our  bodies.  Moses 
undoubtedly  learned  much  concerning  hygiene  from  the 
Egyptians  during  the  Captivity  ;  indeed,  he  had  great  oppor- 
tunity, for  we  are  told  that  at  his  instance  the  land  was  visited 
by  ten  plagues  in  the  space  of  about  twenty-five  days.  Many 
medical  writers,  however,  have  credited  Moses  with  a  know- 
ledge of  pathology  and  hygiene  far  in  advance  of  his  time ; 
but  I  am  bound  to  confess  that  the  evidence  brought  forward  in 
favour  of  Moses'  highly-scientific  attainments  is  often  shadowy, 
to  say  the  least  of  it.  Moreover,  in  the  writings  of  some  of 

1  Presidential  Address  delivered  by  the  Editor  to  the  Scottish  Microscopical 
Society,  Philosophical  Institution,  Edinburgh,  1899. 
I 


2  MEAT  INSPECTION 

the  most  distinguished  scholars,  one  finds  that  the  supposed 
medical  aspect  of  the  laws  relating  to  animals— the  subject 
that  concerns  us  at  present— is  hardly  discussed.  It  is  often 
asserted  in  medical  books  that  the  pig  was  excluded  from  con- 
sumption in  the  Levitical  laws,  because  it  was  known  to  Moses 
that  swine-flesh  was  often  measled  (as  we  now  call  it),  and 
might  infect  human  beings  with  tapeworm.  It  is  unlikely 
that  Moses  was  the  originator  of  the  laws  referred  to  ;  there 
were  lawgivers  and  traditions  before  his  day,  and  it  is  in  the 
evolution  of  these  traditional  ideas  that  the  explanation  of 
the  laws  relating  to  the  flesh  of  animals  seems  to  lie. 

The  portion  of  Leviticus  which  deals  with  the  subject 
was  compiled  by  the  writer  of  the  Law  of  Holiness  somewhere 
about  eight  hundred  years  or  more  after  the  death  of  Moses ; 
but  the  writer  was  not  the  originator ;  he  did  little  more  than 
record  the  traditional  laws,  which  before  his  time  were  per- 
petuated and  probably  modified  by  the  practices  of  generations. 
Once  the  laws  were  written,  of  course,  their  development 
would  be  checked.  It  might  be  argued  that  the  successors  of 
Moses  applied  the  laws  relating  to  animals  for  medical  reasons ; 
but  nobody  would  credit  such  a  suggestion,  because  all  the 
evidence  points  to  them  having  a  religious  significance  :  they 
are,  in  fact,  part  of  the  ritual. 

The  solution  of  the  question  hangs  on  the  origin  of  the 
idea  of  uncleanness  as  applied  to  animals.  Robertson  Smith,  in 
his  "  Burnett  Lectures"  (1888-89),  traces  in  a  most  interesting 
way  the  evolution  of  ideas  which  men  held  regarding  their 
relation  to  animals.  I  wish  here  to  state  that  I  am  indebted 
to  his  works  for  a  great  deal  of  information. 

In  the  earlier  days,  when  ritual  was  of  the  most  primitive 
kind,  there  was  a  time  when  an  amimal's  life  was  held  sacred  on 
account  of  the  kinship  which  was  supposed  to  exist  between 
men  and  gods  and  beasts.  Animals  were  only  slaughtered 
for  a  sacrificial  meal,  in  which  the  god  was  supposed  to  partake 
along  with  his  worshippers.  This  seemed  to  justify  the  slaughter. 
As  the  desire  for  animal  food  increased;  however,  the  sacrificial 


INTRODUCTION  3 

character  of  the  slaughter  was  relaxed,  except  with  regard 
to  certain  species  of  animals  which  were  held  peculiarly  sacred. 
They  were  deemed  so  because  of  their  supposed  kinship  with 
families  of  men,  and  their  relationship  to  the  god. 

At  the  present  day  one  finds  it  hard  to  understand  how 
any  family  of  human  beings  could  foster  the  idea  of  their 
relationship  to  the  pig,  or  consider  the  species  divine. 
(Although  nobody  denies  evolution,  great  difference  of  opinion 
comes  in  when  we  attempt  to  determine  from  what  we  are 
evolved.)  Once  the  latter  relationship  was  established  in  men's 
minds,  however,  the  former  would  become  much  easier  to 
accept.  There  is  plenty  of  evidence  to  show  that  such  beliefs 
were  held  and  acted  upon  in  the  days  of  early  paganism,  and 
that  the  traditional  ceremonies  survived  long  after  the  reason 
for  them  had  been  discredited.  Even  now,  savage  totem  tribes 
exist  in  Africa,  and  it  is  hinted  by  some  authorities  that  their 
ideas  may  have  originally  come  from  the  same  source  as  those 
of  the  Semitic  races.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  animal 
held  sacred  was  not  always  of  the  same  species.  In  Egypt  it 
was  the  dog,  especially  at  Cyanopolis  (Anubis  was  worshipped 
as  the  representative  of  the  dog).  Of  fish,  the  eel  was  held 
sacred  to  the  Nile  by  the  Egyptians  (Herodotus,  ii.  72)  ;  it  was 
unclean  to  the  Jews.  The  Hindoos  regard  the  cow  as  sacred  ; 
the  Shin  caste  of  Dards  abhor  it.  The  Kaffir  used  the  ox,  as 
we  do  a  sheep-dog,  to  herd  and  protect  flocks. 

Besides  the  supposed  relation  of  animals  to  gods,  there 
was  another  reason  why  certain  of  them  were  to  be  avoided, 
viz.  that  they  were  associated  with  the  presence  of  dreaded 
spirits.  In  the  Book  of  the  Dead  (Birch's  translation)  we  find 
that  the  Egyptians  considered  the  pig  unclean  because  the 
demon  Set  appeared  in  that  form  (Hastings'  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible,  article  "  Food  ").  Herodotus  (ii.  47)  hints  at  a  reason, 
but  says  it  would  be  unbecoming  to  mention  it.  Herodotus 
frequently  makes  this  excuse  for  not  referring  to  religious 
matters.  We  see,  then,  that  among  the  ancients  restrictions 
were  put  on  certain  animals  for  two  reasons— first,  on  account 


4  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

of  holiness,  i.e.  the  relationship  to  gods ;  and,  second,  because 
of  ill-disposed  spirits  dwelling  within  them,  i.e.  uncleanness. 
The  two,  however,  own  a  common  root  idea,  and,  as  Eobertson 
Smith  points  out,  the  law  of  clean  and  unclean  in  Levitical 
legislation  almost  meets  that  of  holiness,  since  uncleanness 
was  considered  hateful  to  God.  An  unclean  person  could  not 
approach  the  sanctuary. 

In  time  of  famine  and  on  special  occasions,  the  totem  was 
slaughtered  and  eaten  by  its  human  relations,  but  with  many 
lamentations  and  apologies,  which  must  have  done  much  to 
soften  the  blow.  Similarly,  sacred  and  unclean  animals  were 
eaten  when  food  was  scarce ;  and  on  specially  solemn  occasions 
they  were  employed  for  mystic  sacrifices  to  certain  gods  whose 
names  were  associated  with  the  species  of  animal.  In  the  latter 
cases  the  whole  community  took  a  hand,  and  they  shared  the 
responsibility  of  the  animal's  death,  as  we  to-day  share  the 
responsibility  of  a  capital  sentence  with  the  judge  through 
our  representatives  on  the  jury.  When  the  Syrians  besieged 
Samaria,  the  beleaguered  inhabitants  were  so  short  of  food 
that  an  ass's  head  was  sold  for  fourscore  pieces  of  silver 
(2  Kings  vi.);  but  the  ass  neither  parteth  the  hoof  nor  cheweth 
the  cud.  That  even  human  flesh  was  eaten  under  the  same 
circumstances,  we  learn  from  2  Kings  vi.  29,  and  Lamenta- 
tions iv.  10.  Herodotus  tells  us  (ii.  47)  that  the  Egyptians 
periodically  sacrificed  pigs  to  Isis  (the  goddess  of  the  moon) 
and  to  Bacchus.  Pigs  also  were  sacrificed  to  Demeter,  the 
Greek  representative  of  Isis,  and  to  Ceres,  the  Roman  one,  to 
whom  the  first  temple  was  vowed  by  Postumius  Albiiius, 
496  B.C.  It  was  a  moot  point  with  the  Greeks  whether  the 
Jews  abhorred  or  worshipped  pigs  (i.e.  whether  they  were 
unclean  or  holy).  In  Crete,  pigs  were  sacred,  and  not  ordinarily 
eaten ;  so  also  was  it  in  Syria.  In  the  Levitical  sin-offering 
the  fat  was  burned  at  the  altar,  and  the  remainder  of  the  flesh 
was  eaten  by  the  priests  or  burned  outside  the  town.  Eeason- 
ing  from  what  took  place  among  other  peoples,  Kobertson 
Smith  concluded  that  this  was  done  in  order  that  there  might 


INTRODUCTION  5 

be  no  chance  of  laymen  being  rendered  unclean  by  coming  in 
contact  with  anything  so  holy,  for  holiness  and  uncleanness 
were  looked  upon  as  contagious,  i.e.  were  capable  of  spreading 
from  things  to  men  and  from  men  to  others.  The  more  ancient 
beliefs  were  that  a  man  who  ate  unclean  beasts,  or  the  totem, 
would  be  visited  by  boils,  ulcers,  and  swellings.  Herodotus, 
however,  tells  us  that  the  Egyptians  considered  all  diseases  to 
be  caused  by  demons  entering  the  patient ;  and  it  is  easy  to 
understand  how  men  would  fear  and  shun  unclean  animals 
in  which  demons  were  supposed  to  be  resident.  From  this  it 
may  well  be  asked,  were  not  these  ideas  founded  on  actual 
cases  of  transmission  of  diseases  from  animals  to  man— tapeworm 
from  pig's  flesh,  for  example  ?  In  the  case  of  the  Je\vs,  I  think 
not,  because  perfectly  harmless  animals  and  things  were  re- 
garded as  unclean,  while  ox  flesh,  which  in  the  East  is  often 
measled,  was  not  prohibited.  It  is  stated,  however,  as  a  sine 
qu(L  TioTi,  that  all  sacrificial  animals  must  be  free  from  blemish, 
and,  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  of  pathology,  this 
might  be,  and  often  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  hygienic  bearing. 
I  wrould  point  out,  however,  that  deformed  animals  (without 
disease)  were  also  excluded,  and  that  the  same  rules  applied  to 
the  sacrificial  beasts  which  were  not  eaten.  The  inference  is 
rather,  that  a  second-rate  article  wrould  not  be  accepted  by  the 
god.  Eobertson  Smith  explains,  that  "  without  blemish " 
meant  that  the  sacred  life  was  normally  embodied  in  the  animal, 
and  I  think  that  this  idea  persisted  long  after  the  intensely 
sacrificial  idea  of  slaughter  had  disappeared,  owing  to  the 
increasing  desire  for  carnivorous  diet.  Indeed,  it  persists 
to-day,  for  the  Rabbi  still  performs  a  religious  inspection  of 
the  carcases.  No  one  can  deny  that  these  rules  would  have 
the  same  effect  as  the  inspection  performed  by  Christians  for 
hygienic  reasons.  The  question  is,  however,  did  they  arise 
with  the  ancients  from  hygienic  motives  ?  After  a  perusal  of 
the  writings  of  some  distinguished  biblical  scholars,  and  those 
of  ancient  travellers  like  Herodotus,  I  have  concluded  that 
they  did  not.  Moreover,  if  any  such  idea  did  exist,  it  does  not 


6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

appear  in  the  teaching  of  Christ  (vide  Matt.  xv.  11):  "There 
is  nothing  from  without  that  entereth  into  him  that  can  defile 
him,"  etc.  This  was  in  reply  to  those  who  held  out  for  tradi- 
tional worship  by  the  law. 

Paul  characterised  as  doctrines  of  devils  the  command- 
ments to  abstain  from  meats  which  God  created  (1  Tim.  iv.). 
It  is  true  that  the  weak-kneed  Christians  in  Antioch  and  Syria 
were  told  to  abstain  from  blood  and  things  strangled  ;  but  that 
was  a  diplomatic  stroke  to  make  things  easier  for  them  (Paul, 
1  Cor.  viii.  1). 

The  Levitical  law  demands  that  the  blood  be  poured  out, 
and  the  same  idea  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  injunction  to  abstain 
from  the  flesh  of  strangled  animals  and  those  torn  by  beasts. 
I  do  not  think,  however,  that  any  one  denies  the  religious 
significance  of  their  prohibitions  :  the  blood  is  a  thing  too 
holy  for  men  to  touch.  All  doubt  on  the  subject  is  dispelled 
in  Leviticus  xvii.  11,  12  :  "  For  the  soul  of  all  flesh  is  in  the 
blood,"  etc.  In  verse  12,  even  the  stranger  must  not  partake 
of  blood,  presumably  because  of  the  supposed  contagious  nature 
of  uncleanness.  In  Deuteronomy  xiv.  21,  it  was  allowed  to 
sell  to  the  stranger  the  flesh  of  an  animal  "that  had  died 
of  itself."  If  the  Jews  who  practised  this  considered  that 
such  flesh  was  hurtful  to  health,  they  were  certainly  not  of 
a  Christian  disposition,  although  the  same  reproach  might 
be  attached  to  our  present  irregular  system  of  inspection. 
Animals  considered  likely  to  be  seized  in  an  efficiently 
inspected  abattoir  are  sent  to  the  many  places  where  the 
inspection  is  performed  by  retired  stone-masons,  plumbers, 
and  others  of  the  same  class.  The  prohibition  against  eating 
the  caul  fat  and  that  of  the  kidney  seems  to  have  originated 
from  similar  ideas.  We  pour  out  the  blood  now,  because  bled 
meat  keeps  better  and  is  less  repulsive.  The  carcases  of 
animals  which  have  been  trampled  to  death  (suffocated)  by 
others  in  railway  trucks— these  carcases  come  too  frequently 
into  our  abattoirs— are  seized,  because  they  are  considered 
unmarketable. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

Curious  ideas  concerning  the  toxic  properties  of  blood 
were  abroad  in  ancient  times.  Psammenites,  king  of  Egypt, 
came  by  his  death  through  being  forced  to  drink  bull's  blood 
(Herodotus,  iii.  15).  Themistocles  (449  B.C.)  is  reported  to 
have  committed  suicide  by  drinking  the  bloo^  of  a  bull.  King 
Midas  is  said  to  have  had  a  similar  end  (Strabo).  The  idea 
probably  originated  in  Egypt,  where  male  kine  were  held 
sacred.  Pliny  (23-79  A.D.),  quoting  from  Nicander  (185-135 
B.C.),  prescribes  radishes  (?  cabbage)  as  an  antidote  to  bull's 
blood  (Pliny,  xx.  13) ;  and  in  xxxi.  47,  a  combination  of  nitrum 
and  laser  is  recommended.  In  Book  xi.  91,  he  says  that  bull's 
blood  coagulates  and  hardens  the  most  speedily  of  all,  and 
hence  it  is  so  particularly  deadly  when  drunk.  Again,  we 
are  told  that  bull's  blood  is  reckoned  among  the  poisons,  except 
at  Mgirsi,  where  the  Priestess  of  the  Earth  took  a  draught 
of  bull's  blood  when  about  to  foretell  coming  events  (xxvii.  41). 
Here  the  supernatural  connection  is  still  retained.  Pliny 
also  tells  us  that  he-goats'  blood  was  used  for  sharpening 
instruments ;  the  rust  that  forms  makes  them  sharper  than 
any  file  can. 

Paulus  ^Egineta  (seventh  century  A.D.,  De  Re  Medica, 
Libra  Septem,  v.  54,  Adams)  writes :  "  If  the  blood  of  a  newly- 
killed  bull  be  drunk,  it  brings  on  dyspnoea  and  suffocation, 
obstructing  the  passages  about  the  tonsils  and  the  parts  con- 
cerned in  deglutition  with' violent  spasm."  I  have  been  told 
that  ladies  in  South  America  drink  warm  defibrinated  blood 
to  improve  the  complexion.  Out  of  curiosity  I  have  myself 
tasted  bull's  blood,  so  I  may  be  considered  a  living  protest 
against  the  want  of  veracity  in  the  statements  of  the  ancients. 
A  good  case  can  be  made  out  even  for  the  view  that  there  was 
a  religious  meaning  in  the  injunction  against  the  use  of  putrefy- 
ing flesh;  but  I  am  quite  willing  to  credit  Adam  with  the 
ability  to  appreciate  what  appealed  to  him  through  his  senses. 

I  have  often  heard  it  said  by  irresponsible  persons— indeed, 
the  saying  is  not  limited  to  a  small  circle— that  Jews  enjoy 
to-day  a  greater  freedom  than  other  people  from  tuberculosis 


8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

owing  to  their  observance  of  the  laws  relating  to  animal  flesh  ; 
—some  will  even  assert  that  the  communicability  of  this  dis- 
ease from  animals  to  human  beings  was  suspected  by  Moses. 

Putting  aside  altogether  the  fact  that  animal  flesh  is  one 
of  the  smallest  factors  in  the  spread  of  tuberculosis,  the  Jews 
to-day  enjoy  no  such  immunity  from  this  plague  of  civilisation. 
That  they  met  with  tuberculosis  in  cattle  I  quite  believe,  but 
I  do  not  think  that  a  strong  case  is  made  out  by  those  who 
quote  Leviticus  xxii.  22  as  proving  its  existence.  The  verse 
referred  to  prohibits  offering  animals  with  running  sores— 
running  sore  is  the  rendering  given  in  the  most  recent  English 
translation  (The  Polychrome  Bible,  "  Leviticus,"  by  the  Rev. 
11.  S.  Driver,  D.D.,  and  the  Rev.  H.  A.  White,  M.A.,  1898). 
I  should  prefer  to  rest  my  opinion  on  the  fact  that  the  lungs 
are  examined  by  the  Rabbi  before  the  animal  is  passed  as  free 
from  blemish. 

In  the  Gemara  (fifth  century  A.D.)  there  are  references  to 
lesions  which  must  have  been  tuberculous. 

Let  us  return  now  to  the  measled  pig,  for  he  is  the  chief 
witness  for  the  defence. 

In  warm  climates,  fresh  (i.e.  not  preserved)  pork  seems 
often  to  be  the  cause  of  serious  internal  disturbance  of  a  kind 
that  would  be  quite  intelligible  to  the  most  primitive  mind,— 
even  children  are  able  to  co-relate  the  sequence  of  events  which 
follow  upon  certain  repasts.  At  the  present  day  it  is  forbidden 
in  some  places  to  slaughter  pigs  for  food  during  the  hot  season 
—for  example,  in  Spain,  Greece,  Monaco  (Morot). 

It  is  unlikely,  however,  that  Moses  ever  had  the  opportunity 
of  studying  the  effects  of  pork,  measled  or  healthy,  on  human 
beings,  because  the  pig  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  taboos. 
We  gather  from  the  writings  of  Aristophanes  (444-380  B.C.) 
that  measles  was  known  to  the  Greeks  in  his  time  ( The  Knights, 
Hickie's  Aristophanes,  vol.  i.  p.  70  :  "  And,  by  Jove,  we  will 
put  a  skewer  into  his  mouth  in  cook's  fashion,  and  then  draw 
out  his  tongue  from  within,  and  examine  his  inside  well  and 
manfully,  while  he  gapes,  if  it  be  pimply  "). 


INTRODUCTION  9 

Herodotus  (ii.  38)  tells  us  that  at  Memphis  kine  were  sacred 
to  Epaphus.  The  priest  pulls  out  the  tongue  and  examines 
it  to  see  if  it  is  pure  as  to  the  right  marks.  Herodotus  again 
(iii.  28)  tells  us  that  the  calf  Apis  must  have  on  its  back  the 
figure  of  an  eagle  in  white  against  the  black  ground  of  the 
coat,  and  on  the  tongue  a  black  mark  in  the  form  of  a  beetle. 

I  find  in  Smith's  Classical  Dictionary  that  the  mark  on 
the  tongue  is  said  to  be  like  the  insect  cantharus.  The  latter 
is  not  the  least  like  measles ;  beside,  it  had  to  be  present  at 
birth,  and  measles  is  never  found  then.  There  are  no  grounds, 
therefore,  for  supposing  that  Apis  was  a  measled  calf. 

Tapeworms  were  known  in  Hippocrates'  time  (460  B.C.), 
probably  long  before  him  ;  but  according  to  Leuckart  they  were 
chiefly  the  variety  T '.  saginata  (ox  infection).  Hippocrates, 
however,  states  that  pork  is  a  healthy  and  nutritious  food 
(Celsus).  Bladder- worms  or  measles  were  described  by  Aris- 
totle (384-327  B.C.,  Arist.  Hist.  Animal,  viii.  21);  but  it  was 
not  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  that  their  animal 
nature  was  suspected  (Redi,  1083).  Aristotle  also  mentions 
flat-worms  (ibid.  v.  17), 

The  connection  between  the  bladder-worms  (measles)  and 
the  taeniae,  however,  was  not  thought  of  until  1760,  when 
Pallas  wrote  on  the  subject ;  and  it  was  only  in  1854  that 
Kuchenmeister  experimentally  established  that  pork  measles 
(cysticercus  cellulosce)  was  the  cause  of  tcenia  solium  in  human 
beings. 

The  evidence  derived  from  the  history  of  comparative 
pathology,  then,  renders  it  still  more  doubtful  that  the  Levitical 
laws  had  a  hygienic  origin. 

The  probable  frequency  of  bladder-worms  in  the  pig  would 
have  prevented  many  of  these  animals  from  being  regarded  as 
"  without  blemish."  It  is  difficult  to  believe,  however,  that 
the  species  was  tabooed  on  this  account ;  for  the  bovine  animal, 
a  species  not  proscribed,  was  frequently  the  host  of  bladder- 
worms. 

Spencer  (De  legibus  Judcearum,  cap.  xxxi.)  discusses   the 


i  o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

ideas  of  several  ancient  writers  on  this  subject.  Most  of  their 
opinions,  however,  are  purely  speculative,  and  they  are  not 
backed  up  by  evidence. 

The  Koran  (Mohammed,  570-632  A.D.)  contains  many 
restrictions  on  the  use  of  animal  flesh,  which,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, are  similar  to  those  imposed  by  the  Jewish  doctrines. 
It  is  forbidden  to  eat  that  which  hath  died  df  itself,  blood, 
things  strangled,  flesh  of  animals  torn  by  wild  beasts,  and 
swine-flesh ;  but  it  was  no  crime  to  eat  such  things  in  time  of 
famine  (Sale's  Koran,  chap.  ii.  p.  18,  chap.  v.  p.  73,  chap.  vi. 
pp.  90,  100,  chap.  xvi.  p.  205).  In  chapter  vi.  pp.  101,  102, 
the  precepts  of  idolaters  regarding  certain  flesh  are  condemned. 
Presumably  they  were  wrong  because  those  who  held  them 
were  not  of  the  faith.  The  other  restrictions  seem  to  have 
been  founded  on  ancient  prejudice.  Certainly  no  mention  is 
made  of  a  hygienic  reason  in  the  Koran. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  evidence  furnished  by  tuberculosis. 
It  was  not  until  1865  that  Villemin  demonstrated  that  tuber- 
culosis of  animals  and  human  beings  could  be  conferred  by 
inoculation.  Most  of  our  present  knowledge  regarding  this 
disease  dates  from  Koch's  discovery  of  the  tubercle  bacillus 
in  1882. 

Still,  tuberculosis  in  animals  killed  for  human  food  engrossed 
the  attention  of  hygienists  in  Europe  in  the  eleventh  century, 
as  it  does  to-day. 

The  laws  of  the  Church  in  the  Frankonian  part  of  Germany 
then  forbade  the  use  of  flesh  from  tuberculous  (?)  oxen  (Fried- 
berger  and  Frohner  Fr. ;  trans.  Cadiot  and  Hies). 

In  1363,  letters  patent  of  King  John  of  France  decreed 
against  the  use  of  tuberculous  flesh  (Morot,  quoted  by  Moreau). 

At  Munich,  in  1370,  the  sale  of  the  flesh  from  tuberculous 
animals  was  forbidden ;  other  German  towns  followed  the 
example  of  Munich  (Friedberger  and  Frohner,  op.  cit.*). 

The  seventeenth  century  was  marked  in  the  various  parts 
of  Germany  by  the  alternate  enactment  and  abrogation  of  laws 
regarding  the  use  of  flesh  from  tuberculous  animals. 


INTR  OD  UCTION  1 1 

In  the  early  part  of  the  century  a  relation  was  traced  between 
tubercle  and  syphilis,  and  this  led  to  a  wholesale  destruction 
of  tuberculous  carcases.  In  1783,  however,  the  Sanitary 
College  of  Berlin  denied  the  supposed  relationship,  with  the 
result  that  the  embargo  was  removed.  During  this  con- 
troversy on  sanitary  politics,  Dr.  Zweirlein  publicly  drank  in 
the  market-place  of  Briickenau  a  broth  made  of  tuberculous 
material.  I  do  not  know  if  Zweirlein  developed  tuberculosis,  — 
possibly  he  did  not ;  but  I  know  of  a  good  many  animals  which 
have  come  by  their  death  in  this  w^ay,  and  it  is  beyond  dispute 
that  many  human  beings  have  died  from  ingestion  of  tubercle- 
infected  material. 

The  Fifth  International  Congress  of  Veterinarians,  held  at 
Paris  in  1889,  voted  almost  unanimously  for  the  total  seizure 
of  tuberculous  flesh.  The  Sixth  Congress,  1896,  was  much 
more  moderate  in  its  finding.  To-day  nobody  denies  the 
possibility  of  human  beings  contracting  tuberculosis  by  eating 
infected  material.  The  question  is,  under  what  circumstances 
is  the  flesh  of  a  tuberculous  animal  likely  to  contain  tubercle 
bacilli  ? 

We  know  this  pretty  well  now,  but  many  municipal  com- 
munities still  prefer  either  to  do  without  inspection  or  to  con- 
demn large  quantities  of  harmless  flesh  rather  than  appoint 
an  efficiently  qualified  Meat  Inspector.  I  am  of  opinion  that 
a  code  of  laws  dealing  with  this  subject  is  necessary.  I  do  not 
think  it  possible,  however,  to  devise  a  workable  code,  unless 
it  be  on  the  most  general  lines.  Such  a  one  would  fulfil  all 
requirements,  if  there  were  scientifically  trained  inspectors 
to  interpret  it.  I  hold  that  the  veterinary  surgeon  is  from  his 
education  the  only  one  who  at  present  is  capable  of  doing  this 
with  equal  justice  to  the  butcher  and  to  the  public. 

The  Corporation  of  Edinburgh  has  reason  to  be  proud  of 
the  part  it  has  taken  in  the  advancement  of  meat  inspection. 
Not  only  has  it  acted  as  the  guardian  of  a  veterinary  school, 
but  it  was  the  first  municipal  body  to  organise  a  qualified  staff 
of  Meat  Inspectors,  and  it  has  been  able  to  supply  them  to 


1 2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

other  towns,  which  are  beginning  to  see  the  wisdom  of  appoint- 
ing suitably  educated  officers. 

The  report  of  the  Tuberculosis  Commission  (1898)  says  : 
"  We  may  add  that  in  the  Edinburgh  Public  Slaughter-house 
we  witnessed  meat  inspection  carried  on  more  nearly  on  the 
enlightened  system  of  the  best  continental  abattoirs  than 
it  was  our  fortune  to  see  in  any  other  part  of  the  United  King- 
dom. Here  there  are  six  Meat  Inspectors,  of  whom  four  are 
veterinary  surgeons,  one  has  been  a  butcher,  and  one  a  cattle- 
salesman.  We  were  very  favourably  impressed  with  the 
organisation,  though  the  standard  by  which  the  meat  of  tuber- 
culous carcases  was  judged  appeared  to  us  unnecessarily  severe  " 
(Report,  p.  7,  sec.  21). 

I  would  like  here  to  state  that  the  present  condition  of 
things  in  Edinburgh  is  largely  due  to  the  advice  given  to  the 
Corporation  by  the  late  Professor  Walley,  Principal  of  the 
Dick  College. 

Still,  there  is  room  for  improvement.  The  booth  system 
—the  one  in  use  in  Edinburgh— is  inferior  to  the  central  hall 
system  ;  but,  of  course,  this  could  not  be  changed  unless  new 
premises  were  being  constructed.  The  inspectors,  however, 
might  be  provided  with  a  properly  equipped  laboratory  in 
which  to  make  their  more  particular  examinations,  — this 
could  be  done  at  very  little  expense ;  but  no  abattoir  in  this 
country  is  properly  equipped  for  the  purposes  of  meat  inspection. 

The  importance  of  the  microscope  in  meat  inspection  is 
too  evident  to  require  explanation,  but  it  is  worse  than  useless 
in  the  hands  of  the  untrained. 

The  development  of  our  use  of  salt  with  meat  is  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  man's  civilisation  and  the  evolution  of 
his  carnivorous  habits.  Purely  carnivorous  animals  and  men 
display  no  desire  for  sodium  chloride,  but  as  the  wandering  tribes 
began  to  settle  on  the  soil,  and  eat  vegetables,  the  desire  for  salt 
came.  They  even  added  it  to  their  cereal  offerings  (Leviticus). 
Bunge  (Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry,  Lect.  vii.) 
traces  this  desire  to  the  amount  of  potassium  swallowed 


INTRODUCTION  13 

by  eaters  of  vegetables.  Potassium,  he  says,  causes  the  excre- 
tion of  sodium  chloride.  According  to  Bunge,  then,  the 
craving  for  salt  is  a  request  by  the  tissues  that  this  loss  should 
be  made  good.  Quoting  Ditmar,  he  describes  how  the  Russian 
Government  failed  to  get  the  Kamtschadales  to  use  salted 
instead  of  rotten  fish  from  their  silo  pits.  The  Kamtschadales 
are  icthyophagous,  and  they  positively  loathe  salt.  The 
primitive  vegetarian  races,  on  the  contrary,  crave  for  sodium 
chloride.  Mungo  Park  stated  that  the  negroes  on  the  coast 
of  Sierra  Leone  would  barter  their  wives  for  it  (Bunge,  op.  cit.). 

The  question  of  our  right  to  kill  and  eat  animals  is  one 
of  great  antiquity.  Even  to-day  the  right  is  not  unanimously 
admitted.  We  see  the  contrary  view  in  the  ancient  idea  of  the 
"  Golden  Age,"  and  at  present  it  appears  in  a  few  con- 
scientious abstainers  from  flesh. 

At  the  Diipolia,  when  an  ox  was  slain,  the  participators 
were  tried  for  the  offence.  The  blame  was  shifted  on  to  the 
man  who  used  the  knife,  but  ultimately  it  was  settled  on  the 
weapon,  which  was  cast  into  the  sea  as  a  murderer.  To-day, 
the  doubting  flesh-eaters  quote  Genesis  i.  28  in  justification  of 
their  act. 

Personally,  I  eat  meat  twice  daily,  and  I  believe  that  the 
future  is  for  the  flesh-eating  nations  ;  but  I  strongly  think  that 
a  great  deal  could  and  should  be  done  to  render  the  killing 
more  humane.  Every  animal,  large  or  small,  should  be  stunned 
before  being  bled.  I  do  not  think  that  a  desire  for  a  small 
additional  degree  of  lighter  tint  in  the  flesh  is  a  sufficient  reason 
for  making  an  animal  suffer  great  pain,  nor  do  I  admit  that 
preliminary  stunning  makes  any  material  difference  in  the 
amount  of  blood  which  can  be  extracted  from  the  body.  I 
have  no  intention  of  rousing  public  indignation  by  harrowing 
details,  for  I  believe  the  object  can  be  gained  by  a  simple  men- 
tion to  the  right  authorities.  I  am  aware,  too,  that  many 
butchers  pay  due  regard  to  the  sensory  nerves  of  the  victims 
of  slaughter  ;  but  I  hold  that  in  every  abattoir  the  most  humane 
method  of  slaughter  ought  to  be  enforced. 


14  MEAT  INSPECTION 


STATUTORY  PROVISIONS  IN  REGARD  TO  THE  DUTIES 
OF  MEAT  INSPECTORS 

It  is  a  crime  or  misdemeanour  knowingly  to  sell  for  human 
consumption  meat  which  is  unfit  for  that  purpose  ;  and  if 
such  a  sale  be  made,  and  death  ensue  from  partaking  of  the 
meat,  the  seller  can  be  indicted  for  manslaughter.  The  statut- 
ory enactments  have  for  their  object  the  protection  of  the 
public  by  the  detection  and  prevention  of  this  crime.  Unfor- 
tunately the  regulations  are  not  in  identical  terms  for  all  parts 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  There  are  separate  general 
Statutes  for  each  of  the  three  kingdoms,  and  one  for  the 
Metropolis  of  London  ;  but,  besides,  there  exist  many  local  Acts, 
the  provisions  of  which  are  to  be  read  as  additional  to  the 
enactments  in  the  general  Acts.  The  medical  officer  of  health, 
and  the  sanitary  inspector  or  inspector  of  nuisances,  in  the 
exercise  of  the  duties  laid  on  them  by  these  Acts,  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Local  Government  Boards  of  the  respective 
countries,  who  have  issued  rules  for  their  guidance. 

The  provisions  of  the  Statute  law  with  respect  to  meat 
inspection  which  apply  to  England  and  Wales,  outside  the 
administrative  county  of  London,  are  contained  in  sees.  116- 
119  of  the  Public  Health  Act  of  1875,  and  in  certain  sections 
of  other  Acts  which  are  incorporated  with  it ;  and  for  Ireland, 
in  sees.  132-135  of  the  Public  Health  (Ireland)  Act,  1878. 
The  provisions  in  both  these  Acts  relating  to  the  duties  of 
meat  inspectors  are  in  similar  terms.  They  empower  any 
medical  officer  of  health,  or  inspector  of  nuisances,  at  all 
reasonable  times  (even  on  Sundays)  to  inspect  and  examine 
any  animal,  carcase,  meat,  poultry,  game,  flesh,  or  fish  exposed 
for  sale,  or  deposited  in  any  place  for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  of 
preparation  for  sale,  and  intended  for  the  food  of  man,— the 
proof  that  the  same  was  not  exposed  or  deposited  for  any  such 
purpose,  or  was  not  intended  for  the  food  of  man,  resting  with 
the  party  charged  ;  and  if  any  such  animal,  carcase,  meat, 


INTRODUCTION  15 

poultry,  game,  flesh,  or  fish  appears  to  such  medical  officer 
or  inspector  to  be  diseased  or  •  unsound  or  unwholesome  or 
unfit  for  the  use  of  man,  he  may  seize  and  carry  away  the  same 
himself  or  by  an  assistant,  in  order  to  have  the  same  dealt 
with  by  a  justice,  who  may  condemn  it  and  order  it  to  be 
destroyed.  For  the  purpose  of  this  inspection,  power  is  given 
to  the  inspector  of  nuisances,  the  officer  of  health,  or  any  other 
officer  appointed  for  that  purpose,  in  all  urban  districts,  and 
in  all  rural  districts  to  which  the  provision  may  be  extended 
by  the  Local  Government  Board,  at  all  reasonable  times,  with 
or  without  assistants,  to  enter  into  and  inspect  any  building 
or  place  whatsoever  used  for  the  sale  of  butcher's  meat,  or  for 
slaughtering  cattle ;  and  when  the  building  in  which  the 
diseased  animal  or  meat  is  believed  to  be  kept  is  not  such  a 
place,  a  warrant  may  be  granted  by  any  justice  to  any  such 
officer  on  complaint  made  by  him  on  oath. 

On  the  condemnation  of  the  diseased  animal  or  meat,  pro- 
ceedings may  be  taken  against  the  person  to  whom  the  same 
belongs  or  did  belong  at  the  time  of  exposure  for  sale,  or  in 
whose  possession  or  on  whose  premises  the  same  was  found, 
and  he  may  be  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment.  Any  person 
obstructing  an  officer  in  the  execution  of  his  duty  is  liable  to 
punishment. 

The  provisions  of  the  Public  Health  (London)  Act,  1891, 
which  apply  to  the  administrative  county  of  London,  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Act  of  1875,  with  the  undernoted  exceptions. 
The  medical  officer  or  sanitary  inspector  may  without  a  warrant 
enter  any  premises  for  the  purposes  of  his  inspection.  Before 
proceedings  can  be  taken  against  a  party  in  England  outside 
London,  there  must  have  been  exposure  for  sale  at  the  time 
of  the  seizure  ;  but  in  London  that  is  not  necessary.  In  either 
case  it  has  been  decided  by  the  Courts  of  law  that  personal 
knowledge  of  the  party  charged  is  not  an  element  in  the  offence. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  the  punishment  of  sellers  or  con- 
signors of  diseased  meat,  when  the  same  is  seized  in  the  hands 
of  another  party.  The  Statute  also  provides  for  affixing  to 


1 6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

the  premises  occupied  by  any  person  who  has  been  convicted 
twice  within  twelve  months  of  knowingly  and  wilfully  com- 
mitting an  offence,  a  notice  of  such  convictions. 

The  Public  Health  (Scotland)  Act,  1897,  contains  the 
provisions  relating  to  meat  inspection  for  Scotland.  The 
provisions  offer  considerable  points  of  variance  from  the  English 
enactments.  It  is  provided  that  the  medical  officer  or  sanitary 
inspector,  or  a  veterinary  surgeon  approved  for  the  purposes  of 
the  Act,  may  at  all  reasonable  times  enter  any  premises  within 
the  district  of  the  Local  Authority  (whether,  it  will  be  observed, 
they  are  premises  for  the  sale  of  meat  or  a  slaughter-house  or 
not),  or  search  any  cart  or  vehicle,  or  any  barrow,  basket, 
sack,  bag,  or  parcel,  in  order  to  inspect  and  examine,  and  may 
inspect  and  examine,  any  animal,  alive  or  dead,  or  any  article 
intended  for  the  food  of  man  wrhich  is  exposed  for  sale,  or  de- 
posited in  any  place,  or  is  in  course  of  transmission,  for  the 
purpose  of  sale  or  of  preparation  for  sale,— the  proof  that  the 
same  was  not  exposed,  etc.,  resting  with  the  person  charged  ; 
and  he  may  seize  and  carry  away  the  same  in  order  to  have 
it  dealt  with  by  a  sheriff,  magistrate,  or  justice.  It  is  further 
provided  that  in  the  case  of  a  living  animal,  the  medical  officer 
or  sanitary  inspector,  unless  he  is  himself  a  qualified  veterinary 
surgeon,  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  approved 
as  above  mentioned.  The  police  force  have  power  to  assist 
generally  in  executing  and  enforcing  these  enactments.  If  it 
appears  to  the  magistrate  that  any  animal  which  has  been  seized 
or  is  liable  to  be  seized,  is  diseased  or  unsound  or  unfit  for  the 
food  of  man,  he  shall  condemn  the  same,  and  order  it  to  be 
destroyed  or  so  disposed  of  as  to  prevent  it  from  being  exposed 
for  sale  or  used  for  the  food  of  man. 

It  is  further  provided  that  the  person  to  whom  the  animal 
belongs  or  did  belong  at  the  time  of  the  sale,  or  exposure,  or 
deposit,  or  transmission  for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or  of  preparation 
for  sale,  or  in  whose  possession  or  011  whose  premises  the  same 
was  found,  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty,  unless  he  proves  that 
he  and  any  person  acting  on  his  behalf  did  not  know,  and  could 


INTRODUCTION  17 

not  with  reasonable  care  have  known,  that  it  was  in.  such  a 
condition.  If  the  Court  finds  that  a  person  knowingly  and 
wilfully  committed  the  offence,  he  is  liable  to  imprisonment. 
There  is  a  further  provision  that  if  such  person  proves  that 
the  animal  or  part  thereof  so  condemned  was,  within  a  reason- 
able time  prior  to  the  seizure  thereof,  examined  upon  the 
premises  where  the  animal  was  slaughtered,  and  passed  by  a 
veterinary  surgeon  approved  as  above  provided,  called  in  for 
the  purpose,  and  who  shall  have  granted  a  certificate  in  the 
terms  provided  in  the  Statute,  he  shall  be  exempt  from  penalty 
or  imprisonment  for  the  offence.  To  facilitate  the  obtain- 
ing of  such  a  certificate  from  a  veterinary  surgeon,  Local 
Authorities  may  appoint  a  place  and  time  at  which  a  veterinary 
surgeon  shall  attend  for  the  purpose  of  examining  any  animal, 
alive  or  dead,  and  issue  a  certificate  passing  or  condemning 
it  in  whole  or  in  part.  If  the  certificate  is  a  certificate  passing 
the  animal,  it  shall  set  forth  the  name  of  the  owner,  the  date 
and  hour  of  examination,  and  such  further  particulars  as 
the  Local  Authority  may  prescribe  for  the  identification  of 
the  animal.  A  copy  of  any  certificate  shall  forthwith  be  sent 
by  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  the  chief  constable  of  the  juris- 
diction in  which  the  examination  took  place,  and  the  certificate 
itself  shall  be  sent  by  the  person  selling  the  animal  or  carcase 
immediately  after  the  sale,  and  not  more  than  seven  days  from 
the  date  of  the  certificate,  to  the  chief  constable  of  the  juris- 
diction in  which  the  sale  of  the  animal  or  carcase  took  place. 
There  is  a  penalty  on  a  veterinary  surgeon  or  any  person  contra- 
vening these  enactments. 

The  Scotch  Act  also  enacts  that  no  carcase  shall  be  sub- 
mitted for  examination  unless  as  a  whole  carcase,  including 
the  thoracic  and  abdominal  viscera,  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  examiner  shall  be  readily  able  to  satisfy  himself  that  the 
organs  are  those  of  the  carcase  under  inspection.  As  in  the 
London  Act,  provisions  are  made  for  the  punishment  of  sellers 
or  consignors  of  diseased  meat  seized  in  another  party's  hands, 
and  for  affixing  to  the  premises  of  any  person  who  has  been 


1 8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

convicted  twice  within  twelve  months  of  a  notice  of  such  con- 
victions. Penalties  are  also  imposed  upon  any  person  obstruct- 
ing a  medical  officer,  sanitary  inspector,  or  veterinary  surgeon 
in  the  performance  of  his  duty. 

It  may  be  here  observed  that  it  is  generally  admitted  that 
none  of  the  Acts  authorise  the  inspector  to  make  any  incision 
on  any  animal,  carcase,  or  meat,  without  the  permission  of 
the  owner. 

With  the  exception  of  the  provisions  in  the  Scotch  Act 
with  regard  to  the  veterinary  surgeon,  no  special  qualifications 
are  required  in  persons  employed  as  Meat  Inspectors  by  the 
public  health  authorities. 

It  is  well  to  mention  here  that,  from  the  evidence  laid  before 
the  Royal  Commission  on  Tuberculosis  of  1896,  it  appears 
that  the  great  majority  of  diseased  carcases,  etc.,  are  destroyed 
by  voluntary  arrangement  between  the  inspector  and  the 
butcher,  without  the  intervention  of  a  magistrate. 

There  only  remains  to  be  noted  the  provisions  of  the  Sale 
of  Horse  Flesh,  etc.,  Regulation.  Act,  1889.  It  applies  to  the 
three  kingdoms,  and  provides  that  all  shops  selling  the  flesh 
of  horses,  asses,  or  mules  shall  have  an  intimation  to  that  effect 
affixed  to  them,  and  such  flesh  shall  not  be  sold  as  other  meat. 
Moreover,  the  medical  officer,  or  other  officer  under  direction 
of  the  Local  Authority,  may  inspect  any  meat  suspected  to  be 
the  flesh  of  horses,  asses,  or  mules  which  is  exposed  for  sale 
as  human  food  in  any  place  other  than  such  shop ;  and  if  it 
appears  to  be  the  flesh  of  any  of  these  animals,  he  may  seize 
it  in  order  to  have  it  dealt  with  by  a  justice  or  the  sheriff.  A 
warrant  to  enter  any  building  other  than  such  shop  to  search 
for  meat  suspected  to  be  horse  flesh  illegally  concealed,  may 
be  granted  by  a  justice  on  sworn  complaint  by  the  medical 
officer  or  other  officer  ;  and  the  obstruction  of  such  officer  is 
created  an  offence. 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION 

IT  is  advisable  that  animals  intended  for  human  food  should 
be  subjected  to  a  veterinary  inspection  before  slaughter.  This 
method  of  procedure  has  many  advantages.  It  would  render 
possible  the  exclusion  from  the  market  of  the  carcases  of 
animals  which  have  been  slaughtered  on  account  of  a  disease 
which  might  render  the  flesh  injurious  without  producing 
anatomical  alterations. 

It  would  also  enable  the  inspector  to  pass  certain  carcases ; 
whereas,  in  the  absence  of  information  concerning  the  con- 
dition of  the  animal  during  life,  he  might  feel  compelled  to 
give  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  to  the  consumer.  Further,  the 
veterinary  inspector  would  frequently  be  able  to  advise  the 
proprietor  against  having  his  animal  slaughtered  when  suffer- 
ing from  some  transient  affection  which  would  almost  certainly 
entail  seizure  of  the  carcase.  In  making  an  examination  of 
a  live  animal,  its  temperature  should  be  taken,  and  if 
symptoms  pointing  to  disease  of  any  special  organ  be  observed, 
that  organ  should  receive  the  attention  of  the  inspector  after 
slaughter. 

In  large  abattoirs  it  is  only  possible  to  carry  on  an  adequate 
post-mortem  inspection  where  the  central  hall  arrangement 
is  in  use.  Where  slaughtering  is  carried  on  in  several  booths 
at  the  same  time,  it  is  obvious  that  an  impossible  number  of 
inspectors  would  be  necessary  in  order  to  see  each  carcase  before 
the  butcher  has  had  time  to  remove  diseased  portions  or  to 
substitute  the  organs  of  one  animal  for  another.  The  veter- 
inary inspectors  may  have  a  corps  of  unqualified  assistants  who 
have  received  a  training  in  the  recognition  of  diseased  organs. 

19 


20  MEAT  INSPECTION 

These  assistants  will  be  able  to  draw  his  attention  to  departures 
from  the  normal,  but  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  condemn 
or  pass  abnormal  flesh  and  organs. 

When  the  post-mortem  inspection  is  being  carried  on,  as 
it  should  be,  during  the  process  of  dressing,  the  inspector  is 
almost  bound  to  examine  the  organs  in  the  order  they  are 
exposed  by  the  butcher.  He  will  first  obtain  a  view  of  the 
subcutaneous  tissues,  and  the  superficially  placed  organs,  like 
the  udder,  during  the  skinning  process ;  but  while  the  animal  is 
being  bled  he  may  make  an  examination  of  the  feet.  He  will 
next  see  the  peritoneum,  the  stomachs,  the  intestines,  and  the 
spleen  as  the  abdomen  is  cut  open.  The  pelvic  viscera  can 
be  best  examined  after  removal,  but  a  preliminary  examination 
may  be  made  while  the  intestines  are  being  removed.  The 
lymphatic  glands  attached  to  all  the  organs  should  receive 
particular  attention.  The  liver  can  also  be  examined  at  this 
stage ;  but  a  better  view  can  be  obtained  of  the  organ  after 
its  removal  from  the  body.  This  is  done  after  the  intestines 
have  been  cut  out  and  the  skinning  process  completed.  As 
a  carcase  is  being  elevated  at  the  posterior  end,  the  chest  is 
opened.  The  thoracic  organs  should  be  first  examined  in  situ, 
as  abnormal  adhesions  may  be  present.  The  examination  of 
the  head  and  the  organs  attached  to  it  may.  be  left  to  the  last. 
When  the  nature  of  a  lesion  in  any  organ  is  not  apparent 
to  the  naked  eye,  portions  should  be  removed  for  a  further 
examination  in  the  laboratory,  which  should  be  attached  to 
every  abattoir.  In  this  case,  both  the  organs  and  the  carcase 
from  which  they  have  been  removed  should  be  carefully  marked, 
otherwise  confusion  is  likely  to  occur. 

After  the  carcase  is  dressed,  the  condition  of  the  pleura 
and  peritoneum  may  be  further  examined.  The  kidneys  can 
also  be  examined  when  the  carcase  is  hung  up.  The  super- 
ficially placed  glands,  such  as  the  prepectoral,  lumbar,  supra- 
sternal,  and  supramammary,  if  present,  should  be  incised.  The 
colour  and  condition  of  the  flesh  should  be  noted  at  those 
parts  where  the  muscular  tissue  has  been  exposed,  The  bones 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  21 

of  the  vertebral  column  should  also  be  examined.  The  con- 
dition of  the  flesh  itself  can  hardly  be  judged  until  about  twelve 
hours  have  elapsed  since  slaughter;  but  if  the  inspector  is 
doubtful  about  how  the  carcase  will  turn  out,  he  should  detain 
it  for  further  inspection.  A  proper  opinion  of  the  flesh  can 
only  be  formed  from  the  examination  of  a  freshly-cut  surface. 
The  superficial  layers,  which  have  been  exposed  to  air,  may  be 
of  a  rosy  colour,  although  the  flesh  beneath  is  very  dark  and 
repulsive  in  appearance. 

It  often  happens  that  a  carcase  which  the  butcher  expects 
to  be  condemned,  is  carelessly  dressed. 

The  condition  of  the  carcase  in  fat  should  also  be  observed. 
The  flesh  of  emaciated  animals  is  likely  to  be  tough,  fibrous, 
and  flavourless.  It  is  likely  to  be  innutritions,  but  the  degree 
of  emaciation  which  calls  for  seizure  is  difficult  to  lay  down. 

When  a  carcase  is  sent  into  the  abattoir  after  being  dressed, 
the  inspector  has  less  chance  of  finding  traces  of  disease.  He 
should  make  a  particularly  careful  examination  of  the  serous 
membranes  and  lymphatic  glands.  If  the  pleura  has  been 
stripped  and  the  glands  of  the  chest  region  removed,  the  car- 
case should  be  condemned.  A  carcase  should  not  be  mutilated 
without  the  consent  of  the  inspector.  In  stripped  carcases  one 
will  often  find  tubercle  in  the  prepectoral  glands.  It  is  advis- 
able that  when  a  carcase  is  sent  in  dressed,  the  organs,  with 
the  exception  of  the  bowels,  should  accompany  it.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  manage  this,  however,  in  the  case  of  dead  meat 
imported  from  abroad,  for  healthy  organs  could  always  be 
substituted  for  diseased  ones ;  and  it  would,  of  course,  be  impos- 
sible to  leave  the  most  important  organs  in  situ.  It  is  hardly 
possible  to  subject  imported  meat  to  an  adequate  inspection. 
The  animals,  however,  might  be  properly  inspected  at  the  time 
of  slaughter  by  British  inspectors  located  abroad.  This,  of 
course,  would  not  be  practicable,  unless  it  were  made  a 
rule  only  to  accept  from  abroad  dead  meat  which  had  been 
slaughtered  at  one  or  twTo  centres. 

The  skinning  process  is  sometimes  performed  in  calves  by 


2  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

blowing  air  under  the  skin  through  a  small  puncture.  The 
hole  is  closed  and  the  inflated  part  is  struck  with  the  hand  in 
order  to  drive  the  gas  along  under  the  skin.  The  subcutaneous 
tissues  are  generally  emphysematous  when  this  method  of 
skinning  has  been  practised.  The  butcher  should  not  be 
allowed  to  inflate  the  skin  from  his  lungs,  but  there  is  no  reason 
why  an  insufflator  should  not  be  used. 

The  knives  which  have  been  used  to  dress  the  carcase  of 
an  animal  suffering  from  a  contagious  disease  should  be  steril- 
ised before  being  employed  again ;  it  should  be  the  duty  of  the 
inspector  to  see  to  this.  It  is  very  necessary  in  the  case  of  a 
knife  employed  to  cut  out  tuberculous  organs  from  a  carcase 
which  is  likely  to  be  passed.  This  knife  should  on  no  account 
be  used  on  other  parts  of  the  carcase.  The  best  method  of 
sterilising  instruments  is  to  boil  them  in  water,  and  arrange- 
ments for  doing  this  should  be  at  hand  in  the  slaughtering  hall. 

Frozen  meat  has  usually  a  diffusely  red  colour  when  thawed, 
owing  to  the  hsemaglobin  being  dissolved  in  the  fluids  and 
permeating  the  tissues.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  the 
thawing  process  has  been  conducted  too  rapidly.  When  a 
joint  has  been  frozen  and  thawed  several  times,  as  may  happen 
with  unsold  meat  in  a  butcher's  shop,  one  often  finds  that  the 
flesh  shows  gelatinous-looking  areas. 

Chilled  meat  (i.e.  meat  kept  at  a  few  degrees  above 
freezing-point)  has  also  a  bright  red  colour.  The  tissues 
are  less  altered  than  when  they  have  been  actually  frozen. 

Salted  or  pickled  meat  should  also  be  carefully  inspected. 
When  the  process  has  been  improperly  carried  out,  the 
flesh  may  decompose.  It  becomes  moist,  slimy,  and  mouldy 
on  the  surface.  A  steel  trocar  or  tryer  may  be  inserted  into 
the  substance  of  the  flesh,  and  examined  for  traces  of  a  putre- 
factive odour  on  withdrawal.  If  the  inspector  has  good  reason 
to  suspect  that  the  preserved  meat  is  decomposing,  he  should 
cut  into  the  deeper  layers  around  the  bone,  for  it  is  there 
that  the  best  evidence  can  usually  be  obtained.  The  meat 
which  has  been  salted  has  sometimes  been  bad  from  the  first. 


PLATE  I 


d 


Hind  Quarter  of  Bullock. 
a,  Scrotal  fat. 
I).  Penis. 

c.  Retractor  muscle  of  Penis. 

d.  Pelvic  bone. 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  '   23 

Flesh  preserved  by  such  chemical  agents  as  boracic  and  sali- 
cylic acids,  should  not  be  allowed  into  the  market,  as  these 
agents  may  have  an  injurious  action  on  human  beings. 


DIFFERENCES  IN  CARCASES,  FLESH,  AND  ORGANS 
REFERABLE  TO  SPECIES,  SEX,  AND  AGE 

It  is  possible  to  tell  a  good  deal  about  species,  sex,  and  age 
by  an  examination  of  the  dressed  carcase.  The  student  of 
comparative  anatomy  will  have  little  difficulty  in  determining 
the  species  and  sex  when  dealing  with  an  entire  carcase. 

His  task,  however,  will  be  more  difficult  when  the  carcase 
has  been  cut  up  for  the  market,  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that  a  minute  examination  of  the  bones  will  not  always  be 
possible.  The  question  of  age  is,  of  course,  best  settled  by  an 
examination  of  the  teeth. 

In  the  absence  of  the  head,  however,  one  can  form  an  approx- 
imate idea  of  the  age  from  the  condition  of  the  bones  and  flesh. 

The  carcases  of  bovine  animals.—  The  carcase  of  the  bull 
shows  great  muscular  development  in  the  regions  of  the 
shoulders,  the  neck,  and  the  hind  quarters.  The  neck  is  thicker 
than  that  of  the  ox,  the  heifer,  or  the  cow.  When  one  looks 
at  the  posterior  surface  of  the  dressed  carcase,  one  sees  at  the 
junction  of  the  neck  and  back  a  figure  resembling  the  head 
of  Napoleon.  This  appearance  is  due  to  the  marked  develop- 
ment of  the  panniculus  muscle,  and  it  is  just  as  well  seen  in 
the  bullock.  The  penis  is  seen  on  the  left  side  of  the  abdomen, 
or  if  the  organ  has  been  removed  a  furrow  is  left.  The  retractor 
penis  muscle  is  well  developed,  and  the  erector  penis  is  exceed- 
ingly prominent.  The  joints  are  larger  than  in  the  female. 
The  anterior  part  of  the  ischio- pubic  symphysis  is  very 
well  developed.  It  forms  a  distinct  tubercle.  The  line  of 
the  symphysis  is  distinctly  curved,  and  at  its  posterior  part 
it  forms  an  acute  angle  with  the  line  of  adipose  tissue  which 
runs  round  the  inner  aspect  of  the  thigh  (Plate  I.).  In  the 
bullock  the  quarters  are  not  so  well  developed.  They  are 


24  "  MEAT  INSPECTION 

less  rotund.  The  penis  and  the  retractor  muscle  are  less 
prominent  than  in  the  bull,  and  the  erector  muscles  are 
atrophied.  The  anterior  tubercle  of  the  pubis  is  smaller 
than  in  the  bull.  The  scrotal  fat  is  distinctly  prominent  and 
nodulated. 

In  the  female  the  quarters  are  still  less  rotund  than  in 

the  bullock.     In  the  cow  the  posterior  line  of  the  hind  quarters 

is  usually  concave,  the  subcutaneous  covering  of  adipose  tissue 

is  poorly  developed,  and  the  angles  of  the  haunch  are  prominent. 

In  young  fat  cows,  however,  the  muscular  development  may 

l)e  equal  to  that  of  the  heifer.     The  female  pelvis  is  broader  than 

that  of  the  male,  but  the  anterior  tubercle  of  the  pubis  is  poorly 

developed.     The  floor  of  the  pelvis  is  less  curved  than  in  the 

male,  and  the  internal  fat  of  the  thigh  is  in  a  sense  concentric 

with  it  (Fig.  1).     In  the  female  the  udder  is  present,  or  the 

marks  of  it  are  left  when  it  has  been  removed.     These  marks 

in  the  cow  extend  from  the  inguinal  region  to  a  considerable 

distance  along  the  abdominal  wall.     They  are  triangular  in 

shape,  with  the  apex  directed  forward.     The  fat  at  the  base 

of  the  udder  is  often  fairly  well  developed,  and  the  supramam- 

mary  lymphatic  glands  are  large.     In  the  heifer  the  mammary 

gland  is  poorly  developed.     It  is  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  fat, 

and  the  gland  tissue  is  whiter  in  colour  than  that  of  the  cow. 

In  animals  of  the  bovine  species  the  bones  of  the  lower  row 

of  the  carpus  are  t\vo    in   number.     In  young  animals  the 

cartilages  covering    the  articular  surfaces  are  blue  or   rosy, 

but  as  the  animal  advances  in  years  the  colour  becomes  white. 

Up  to  the  age  of  three  years  it  is  possible  to  cut  through  the 

ischio-pubic  symphysis  with   a   knife.     After  three  years  the 

junctional  cartilage  becomes  osseous.     Up  to  the  age  of  four 

years  the  costal  cartilage  at  the  ninth  rib  can  be  cut  through 

with  comparative  ease.     At  the  age  of  five  this  is  difficult, 

and  at  six  it  is  almost  impossible  to  sever  them  with  a  knife. 

According  to  the  observations  of  Bunge,  the  line  of  junction 

between  the  superior  spines  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  and  their 

summits  is  cartilaginous  up  to  the  sixth  year.     A  very  thin 


PLATE    II 


d 


Hind  Quarter  of  Heifer. 

a.  Udder,  very  small,  surrounded  by  fat. 

b.  Section  through  pelvic  bone. 

c.e.  Sacro-lumbar  (or  kidney)  fat— kidney  removed, 
d.  Sections  through  muscles  of  haunch. 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  25 

line  of  cartilage  may  even  persist  up  to  the  eighth  year  in  the 
first  four  or  five  vertebrae.  From  the  sixth  year  to  about 
the  twelfth,  the  separation  is  marked  by  a  red  line,  but  after 
this  all  trace  of  a  separating  line  has  disappeared.  These 
changes  in  the  bones,  however,  are  greatly  influenced  by 
the  breed  and  the  feeding.  As  a  general  rule,  the  osseous 
tissue  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  becomes  denser  with  age, 
and  the  intervertebral  discs  get  thinner. 

The  left  kidney  of  the  ox  is  floating,  the  right  is  fixed. 

Tlie  carcase  of  the  horse.—  There  is  little  chance  of  a  horse's 
carcase  being  mistaken  for  that  of  an  ox.  The  neck  of  the  horse 
is  longer,  and  the  bodies  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  are  more 
elongated. 

The  bones  of  the  horse's,  limbs  are  longer  than  those  of  the 
ox,  and  the  lower  row  of  the  carpus  is  made  up  of  three  or  may 
be  four  bones.  The  sternum  is  cariniform,  and  the  line  of 
the  ischio-pubic  symphysis  is  almost  straight.  Moreover,  the 
horse  has  eighteen  pairs  of  ribs,  while  the  ox  has  only  thirteen 
pairs.  The  ribs  of  the  horse  are  much  narrower  than  those 
of  the  ox. 

The  carcases  of  the  sheep  and  goat.— The  carcase  of  the 
sheep  is  only  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  that  of  the  goat. 
Both  have  thirteen  ribs.  In  fat  sheep  the  external  covering 
of  adipose  tissue  is  well  developed  ;  in  the  goat  it  is  practically 
absent.  The  neck,  body,  and  quarters  of  the  goat  are  longer 
than  those  of  the  sheep.  The  carcase  of  the  former  might  be 
described  as  being  long  and  lean.  Moreover,  the  transverse 
lumbar  process  of  the  goat  are  curved  in  a  downward 
direction. 

The  carcase  of  the  pig  usually  has  the  head  attached, 
and  its  characters  are  so  distinctive  that  no  mistake  should 
arise.  The  pig  has  fourteen  ribs.  The  neck  is  very  short. 
In  the  dressing  process  the  skin  of  the  pig  is  not  removed : 
the  carcase  is  scalded  and  scraped.  The  subcutaneous  fat 
is  very  white  and  soft,  but  it  is  only  seen  where  the  abdomen  is 
cut  open,  unless  an  incision  be  made  into  the  other  parts. 


26  MEAT  INSPECTION 

The  muscular  tissue  in  the  healthy  ox  should  be  of  a  florid 
hue  in  adult  animals ;  being  brighter  in  young  animals  up 
to  about  eighteen  months  old,  and  darker  in  hue  after  the  age 
of  six.  In  certain  positions— the  limbs,  for  example— the  flesh 
should  be  almost  free  from  intermixture  with  fat ;  in  others 
its  connective  tissues  should  be  so  infiltrated  or  intermixed 
with  that  substance  as  to  give  it  a  distinctly  mottled  or 
marbled  appearance  on  section.  This  appearance  is  very 
well  seen  in  the  longissimus  dorsi  between  the  sixth  and 
eighth  ribs.  The  flesh  should  be  of  firm  or  slightly 
elastic  consistence,  tolerably  dry  after  being  exposed  for  a 
short  time  to  the  atmosphere,  and  rigor  mortis  (death  stiffen- 
ing) should  be  marked,— in  other  words,  the  carcase  should 
"  set "  or  "  firm."  Immediately  after  slaughter  the  flesh  is 
brownish  red  and  flabby.  It  sets  in  about  twelve  hours.  It 
should  possess  a  pleasant,  sweet  aroma,  and  should  exhale, 
when  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat,  a  savoury  odour.  The 
graining  of  the  muscles  on  transverse  section  should  be 
fine.  It  is  coarser  in  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  ster- 
num than  elsewhere.  In  old  cows,  but  more  especially  in 
the  bull,  the  flesh  is  stringy  and  darker  in  colour.  Bull  flesh 
has  an  odour  sui  generis. 

The  flesh  of  the  calf  is  always  pale  red  in  colour,  and  not 
very  firm  in  consistence.  The  fat  resembles  tallow.  The 
colour  of  the  flesh  will  depend  largely  upon  whether  the  animal 
has  or  has  not  been  bled  prior  to  slaughter,  but  the  custom  now 
is  to  bleed  calves.  In  the  newly  born  or  unborn  calf —slink 
veal  of  the  butchers— the  flesh  has  a  watery,  gelatinous  appear- 
ance, and  the  fat  resembles  tallow  which  has  been  macerated 
for  some  time  in  water.  The  lungs  of  a  still-born  calf  are 
collapsed.  Calf  flesh  possesses  a  distinctive  odour.  While 
it  is,  by  some  manufacturers,  largely  substituted  for  chicken 
in  the  manufacture  of  ham,  chicken,  and  tongue,  other 
substitutions  for  veal  are  rarely  practised.  It  is  as  well,  how- 
ever, to  note  that  the  flesh  of  a  large  dog  has  a  close  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the  young  calf,  and  when  the  head,  with 


PLATE    m. 


Hind  Quarter  of  Cow. 
o.a.  Site  of  udder — removed. 
b.b.  Deep  inguinal  or  mammary  lymphatic  glands. 

c.  Site  of  sacro-lumbar  group  of  glands. 

d.  Site  of  lumbar  (kidney)  group  of  glands. 

e.  Spot  opposite  to  which  (on  the  outside  of  the  flank)  the  superficial  flank 

group  of  glands  are  situated. 


7/ 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  27 

the  legs  as  far  up  as  the  knees  and  hocks,  have  been  re- 
moved, the  one  carcase  may  be  easily  mistaken  for  the  other. 
In  the  calf  the  joints  are  much  larger  than  in  the  dog  ;  and 
the  carcase  of  the  dog  always  exhales  a  distinctively  canine 
odour. 

The  flesh  of  very  young  animals  has  a  laxative  effect  on 
human  beings.  It  should  not  be  allowed  into  the  market. 
Few  calves,  however,  come  into  the  abattoir  for  slaughter 
before  the  age  of  five  weeks.  The  flesh  of  calves  soon  becomes 
sour. 

The  fat  of  bovine  animals  varies  in  colour  from  white  to 
straw  colour  and  yellow.  It  is  whiter  in  colour  usually  in 
young  bulls,  and  in  animals  fed  on  corn  or  grass,  than  in 
bullocks  or  cows,  or  in  animals  fed  on  rich  cakes,  in  which  it 
is  sometimes  of  a  tolerably  deep  yellow,  as  it  is  in  certain 
breeds  of  cattle,  e.g.  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys.  In  cooking, 
a  loss  of  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  takes  place  in  the  case  of 
yellow  fat,  consequently  (according  to  Capt.  Stacpole)  officers 
charged  with  the  duty  of  purchasing  fresh  meat  for  the  army 
are  directed  to  avoid  it  when  the  flesh  is  markedly  yellow. 
It  should  be  firm,  have  a  suety  taste,  and  a  slightly  greasy 
feel. 

The  connective  tissue  should  glisten  on  exposure,  and  be 
tolerably  moist,  but  there  should  be  no  draining  of  water  from 
its  meshes.  It  is  most  abundant  in  parts  where  the  skin 
is  loosely  attached,  e.g.  the  flanks,  under  the  shoulder,  the 
abdomen,  and  at  the  breast  or  brisket. 

The  muscular  tissue  of  the  horse  is  much  darker  in  colour 
than  is  that  of  the  ox.  It  is  coarser  in  texture,  and  its 
odour  is  less  pleasant.  The  flesh  of  the  ass  and  mule  is  more 
finely  grained  than  that  of  the  horse.  The  fat  is  always  of 
a  yellowish  colour,  softer  than  is  that  of  the  ox,  and  it 
has  a  rather  unpleasant,  sickly  taste.  This  want  of  consistence 
is  due  probably  to  the  fact  that  it  contains  a  large  propor- 
tion of  olein.  After  the  lapse  of  a  few  days— the  length  of 
time  depending  upon  the  amount  of  watery  vapour  in  the 


28  MEAT  INSPECTION 

atmosphere  and  the  condition  of  the  animal  when  slaughtered 
—horse  flesh  contracts  a  peculiar  sickly  odour,  and  it  sticks  to 
the  fingers. 

In  those  cases  where  the  bones  have  been  removed,  the 
hints  above  given  must  be  relied  upon  ;  but  when  the  operation 
of  "  boning  "  has  not  been  performed,  there  should  be  little  diffi- 
culty in  distinguishing  between  a  joint  cut  from  the  carcase 
of  an  ox  and  one  from  that  of  the  horse.  The  bones  of  the 
horse  are,  relatively,  much  larger  than  are  those  of  the  ox. 
They  contain  more  fatty  matter,  which  is  of  a  semi-fluid  con- 
sistence. The  processes  usually  situated  at  the  extremities 
(the  epiphyses  and  the  apophyses)  are  better  developed  and 
more  numerous,  and  those  bones  which  are  indirectly  con- 
nected with  the  skeleton,  the  floating  bones,  as  the  cap  of  the 
stifle  (patella),  are  much  more  pronounced  in  form  and  size. 
The  ulna  (or  elbow  bone)  of  the  ox  is  much  larger  than  is  that 
of  the  horse— it  articulates,  in  fact,  with  one  of  the  bones  of  the 
knee  (the  cuneiform) ;  but  the  corresponding  bones  of  the  hind 
leg  (the  fibula),  as  also  the  splint  bones  of  both  fore  and  hind 
legs,  are  usually  absent  in  the  ox,  or,  if  present,  are  rudimentary. 

The  flesh  of  the  horse  contains  a  larger  amount  of  glycogen 
than  that  of  other  animals,  and  the  presence  of  this  substance 
is  a  means  of  identifying  horse  flesh.  Hasterlik  and  Niebel 
have  described  a  method  of  estimating  the  amount  of  glycogen 
in  flesh.  Trotter,  employing  the  method  followed  by  Niebel, 
found  that  the  amount  of  glycogen  present  in  the  flesh  of  oxen 
and  sheep  was  nil.  In  that  of  the  pig  it  varied  from  0  to  -26 
per  cent.  In  various  samples  of  horse  flesh  the  amount  of 
glycogen  was  from  -9  to  1-85  per  cent.  The  most  recently 
published  method  for  the  estimation  of  glycogen  is  that  of 
Pfliiger,  which  is  as  follows:— The  tissue  is  extracted  with  an 
alkaline  solution  containing  about  3  per  cent.  KHO.  To  this 
10  grms.  of  KI  per  100  cc.  are  added.  This  keeps  the  pro- 
teids  in  solution  when  the  glycogen  is  precipitated  by  the 
addition  of  \  to  2  vols.  of  96  per  cent,  alcohol.  After  precipi- 
tation the  mixture  is  filtered,  and  the  glycogen  is  retained 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  29 

by  the  filter  paper,  the  weight  of  which  is  known.  The  pre- 
cipitate is  washed  with  the  following  solution :  KHO  —  3 
grins.,  KI  -  10  grms.,  Water  -  100  cc.  Free  KHO  to 
between  •  4  and  2  per  cent,  (over  and  above  that  combined  with 
the  proteid)  must  be  present.  The  precipitate  (glycogen) 
is  next  washed  with  50  per  cent,  alcohol,  then  with  pure 
alcohol.  Finally,  the  paper  with  its  contents  is  dried  in 
an  oven  until  the  weight  is  constant.  The  difference 
between  the  original  dry  weight  of  the  filter  paper 
and  that  of  the  dried  paper  and  precipitate  represents 
glycogen. 

A  less  exact  but  simpler  test  for  glycogen  in  flesh  is  that 
introduced  by  Brautigam  and  Edelmann,  which  has  been 
further  simplified  by  Courtoy  and  Coremans. 

Fifty  grammes  of  minced  flesh  are  boiled  in  200  grammes 
of  water  for  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes.  After  cooling,  the 
broth  is  filtered.  A  portion  of  this  fluid  is  put  into  a  test-tube, 
and  a  few  drops  of  the  following  solution  are  slowly  added : 
iodine,  2  parts  ;  iodide  of  potassium,  4  parts  ;  water,  100  parts. 
The  tube  should  be  held  up  to  the  light  when  the  first  drops 
are  added,  and  a  faint  tinge  of  violet  will  be  seen  in  the  broth, 
if  glycogen  be  present. 

Courtoy  and  Coremans  say  that  if  the  broth  does  not  become 
of  a  distinct  brown  colour  the  flesh  under  examination  is  not 
horse  flesh.  The  brown  colour  should  disappear  when  the 
broth  is  heated  to  80°  C.,  and  reappear  on  cooling. 

When  the  colour  taken  is  a  deep  violet,  starch  is  present. 
In  such  a  case  they  advise  the  addition  of  twice  its  volume  of 
acetic  acid  to  the  broth  before  testing.  They  also  say  that 
glycogen  is  absent  from  the  masseter  muscles  of  the  horse. 

The  organs  of  the  horse  most  largely  substituted  for  the 
edible  organs  of  the  ox  are  the  tongue,  the  heart,  and  the  liver. 

The  tongue  of  the  horse  is  broad  at  its  free  extremity,  while 
that  of  the  ox  is  pointed,  and  in  the  latter  its  upper  surface  is 
rough  and  bristly,  owing  to  the  large  filiform  papillae.  The  cir- 
cumvallate  papillae  are  more  numerous  in  the  tongue  of  the  ox 


30  MEAT  INSPECTION 

than  in  that  of  the  horse.  In  that  of  the  former  animal  they 
are  arranged  in  two  rows.  If,  as  frequently  happens,  the  bone 
of  the  tongue  (the  os  hyoides)  has  been  left  in  situ,  it  will  be 
found  that  while  in  the  ox  it  is  composed  of  nine  segments 
or  parts,  there  are  only  five  in  the  horse ;  that  the  body  of  the 
bone  is  of  an  angular  shape  in  the  ox,  and  its  spur  process  is 
short  and  conical.  The  epiglottis  (a  cartilage  frequently  left 
on  the  tongue)  is,  in  the  horse,  thinner  and  more  pointed  than 
in  the  ox. 

The  heart  of  the  ox  is  more  pointed  (conical)  than  that 
of  the  horse,  and  the  fat  in  the  furrows  on  the  external  sur- 
face is  usually  in  greater  quantity,  whiter  in  colour,  and 
firmer  in  texture ;  moreover,  at  the  base  of  the  former 
there  exists  a  bone  (the  os  cordis)  which  is  not  found  in 
the  latter. 

The  livers  of  the  ox  and  sheep.— They  are  made  up  of  a 
continuous  mass  or  lobe,  with  one  small  lobe  at  the  upper  and 
posterior  part,  while  in  the  horse  there  are  three  distinct  lobes 
—the  right,  left,  and  middle— with  a  supernumerary  lobe.  In 
the  former  animals  a  gall  bladder  is  attached  to  the  posterior 
surface ;  in  the  horse  it  is  wanting.  The  liver  of  the  pig 
has  five  lobes,  and  the  lobules  are  distinctly  mapped  out  on 
its  surface,  while  in  the  dog  this  organ  is  made  up  of  two 
lobules— right  and  left. 

The  kidneys  of  the  ox  and  the  calf  are  lobulated— i.e. 
separated  into  lobes  or  divisions— and  elongated ;  those  of 
the  dog,  the  pig,  and  the  sheep  are  simple  and  oblong  in  shape. 
While  the  left  kidney  of  the  horse  is  oblong,  the  right  is  heart- 
shaped.  The  kidney  of  the  pig  is  flatter  on  its  surfaces  than 
is  that  of  any  other  animal. 

The  flesh  of  the  sheep  is  of  a  less  florid  hue  and  finer  in  the 
grain  than  is  that  of  the  ox,  but  in  the  old  ram  it  is  often  of  a 
tolerably  pronounced  colour,  and  very  tough.  Even  between 
the  flesh  of  the  old  ewe  or  wether  and  that  of  the  young  animal 
there  is  a  marked  contrast  in  this  respect.  The  fat  is  always 
very  firm  (suety)  and  white  in  colour,  and  both  flesh  and  fat 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  31 

exhale  a  more  distinctive  odour  than  that  given  off  from  the 
carcase  of  the  ox.  The  fat,  too,  is  more  evenly  distributed 
over  the  back  and  sides  of  the  carcase,  and  the  muscular  tissue 
is  seldom  found  to  be  marbled  with  fat,  except  in  the  longissimus 
dorsi. 

Occasionally  the  flesh  of  the  sheep  is  tainted  with  the  flavour 
of  wool.  This,  it  has  been  variously  explained,  is  due  to  the 
skin  being  left  on  the  back  of  the  carcase  for  some  time  after 
death ;  to  the  carcase  being  enveloped  in  the  skin ;  and  to 
the  intestines  and  stomach  being  allowed  to  remain  for  too 
long  a  time  in  the  abdomen. 

The  flesh  of  the  goat  is,  in  adult  animals,  much  darker  in 
colour  than  is  that  of  the  sheep,  and  the  fat  is  less  abundant ;  but 
although  the  fat  on  the  body  is  small  in  quantity,  there  may  be 
equally  as  much  fat  on  the  loins  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter. 
When  newly  dressed,  and  when  subjected  to  the  action  of 
heat,  the  flesh  of  the  goat  gives  off  a  distinct  "  goaty  "  odour ; 
it  has  also  a  "  goaty  "  flavour.  The  marbled  appearance  is  not 
seen  in  the  flesh  of  goats. 

The  substitution  of  the  flesh  of  the  goat  for  that  of  the  sheep, 
or  the  kid  for  that  of  the  lamb,  is  a  matter  of  much  less 
importance  than  are  some  of  the  substitutions  carried  out  as 
between  other  animals. 

The  flesh  of  the  pig  is,  in  young  animals,  pale  in  colour, 
and  even  in  adults  it  is  of  a  comparatively  lighter  hue  than 
that  of  either  the  ox  or  the  sheep.  It  is  also  less  firm  to  the 
touch ;  the  fat  is  more  unctuous  to  the  feel.  It  forms  a 
deep  smooth  layer  all  round  the  kidneys  and  under  the  skin 
of  the  back  and  sides— the  latter  constituting  the  "  panniculus 
adiposus"  of  the  comparative  anatomist.  A  slight  odour  is 
always  detectable,  and  this  becomes  very  pronounced  in  old 
boars,  as  does  also  the  "  brawny  taste."  Both  the  odour  and 
taste  are  retained— the  former,  in  fact,  is  increased— on  cooking. 
The  flesh  of  the  pig  is  not  substituted  for  that  of  other  animals ; 
but  inasmuch  as  large  boars  are  frequently  skinned,  and  the 
flesh  is  of  a  deep  red  colour,  the  carcase,  on  a  superficial  view, 


3  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

is  not  at  all  unlike  that  of  an  old  ram.    The  anatomical  differ- 
ences, however,  are  very  marked. 

It  is  impossible  to  cut  through  the  skin  of  an  old  boar,  so 
hard  and  fibrous  does  it  become. 


METHODS  OF  PREPARING  TISSUES  FOR  MICROSCOPICAL 
EXAMINATION 

It  is  not  intended  in  this  section  to  deal  widely  with  the 
histological  methods  of  examination.  The  scope  of  the  volume 
will  hardly  admit  of  it,  and  there  are  many  excellent  text- 
books which  treat  of  the  subject.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
intending  Meat  Inspector  ought  to  serve  an  apprenticeship  in 
the  laboratory  in  order  to  qualify  himself  for  his  future  work  ; 
but  as  there  are  many  who  have  not  had  the  opportunity 
of  doing  this,  the  Editor  ventures  to  hope  that  the  few  simpler 
methods  described  in  this  section  will  not  be  considered 
superfluous. 

Tissues  which  are  to  be  examined  microscopically  may  be 
cut  into  thin  sections  on  the  freezing  microtome  in  the  fresh 
state,  or  after  they  have  been  fixed  and  hardened.  Thinner  and 
better  preparations  can  often  be  obtained  by  the  embedding 
method ;  but  a  good  deal  of  practice  is  necessary  before  one 
learns  to  execute  the  different  manipulations  satisfactorily. 
For  the  ordinary  purposes  of  diagnosis,  the  freezing  method 
will  be  found  to  meet  most  of  the  requirements  of  the  Meat 
Inspector. 

THE  FREEZING  METHOD 

As  already  said,  a  tissue  may  be  cut  in  the  fresh  state  or 
after  it  has  been  hardened. 

Method  of  dealing  with  fresh  tissues.  — As  a  general  rule, 
the  softer  tissues  cannot  be  cut  in  the  fresh  state  with  very 
satisfactory  results. 

The  very  cellular  parts  usually  fall  out  of  the  section,  and 
the  latter  is  apt  to  split  up  into  shreds  when  the  cover-glass  is 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  33 

applied.  Moreover,  it  is  impossible  to  free  fresh  tissue  sections 
from  air-bubbles,  or  to  dehydrate  them  with  good  results,  when 
they  require  to  be  mounted  in  balsam.  Nevertheless,  one  can 
often  by  the  fresh  method  obtain  preparations  which  are  quite 
good  enough  for  purposes  of  diagnosis.  It  is  better  not  to 
attempt  to  cut  large  sections  of  fresh  tissue,  as  these  are  very 
difficult  to  manipulate.  Half  an  inch  square  will  be  found  a 
convenient  size  for  the  block  of  tissue  which  is  to  be  cut.  The 
block  is  placed  on  the  plate  of  the  microtome,  which  has  pre- 
viously been  smeared  with  a  thick  layer  of  gum  solution.1 
The  object  of  the  gum  is  to  firmly  fix  the  block  on.  the  plate 
after  freezing,  but  it  should  not  be  put  all  over  the  tissue,  as  in 
the  case  of  hardened  specimens,  for  fresh  sections  smeared 
with  gum  are  difficult  to  separate  from  each  other  without 
tearing. 

The  tissue  is  next  frozen  by  the  ether  spray  to  the  required 
hardness.  It  is  afterwards  cut  into  thin  sections  with  a  razor 
on  a  tripod,  or  with  one  of  the  plane  knives  supplied  with  the 
microtome. 

It  is  advisable  to  wet  the  upper  surface  of  the  knife  before 
commencing  to  cut,  as  the  sections  then  tend  to  stick  to  it. 
When  a  number  have  accumulated  on  the  surface  of  the  blade, 
they  should  be  gently  wiped  off  with  the  finger  into  a  basin  of 
clean  water.  The  best  sections  are  then  picked  out  with  a 
mounting  needle,  placed  in  another  basin  of  water,  from  which 
they  are  mounted  on  a  slide.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  all  the 
manipulations  should  be  performed  in  the  gentlest  manner 
possible,  to  avoid  tearing  the  sections. 

A  very  useful  method  of  dealing  with  soft  tissues  in  the  fresh 
state  is  to  harden  them  for  one  hour  in  a  ten  per  cent,  solution 
of  formalin  before  cutting.  The  tissue  should  be  cut  into  small 
blocks  of  the  size  above  described  before  being  immersed  in  the 
hardening  solution.  Firm  sections  can  be  obtained  from  fresh 
brain  tissue  that  has  been  treated  in  this  way.  Lung  tissue 
which  is  not  airless  will  float  on  the  surface  of  the  fluid  ;  and  in 

1  The  B.P.  Mucilage  suits  very  well. 
3 


34  MEAT  INSPECTION 

order  to  insure  the  penetration  of  the  latter,  the  blocks  must 
be  made  to  sink. 

If  only  a  few  sections  are  required,  it  saves  time,  and  -  it  is 
convenient,  to  begin  cutting  before  the  block  has  been  frozen 
to  the  top.  When  the  lower  part  is  quite  rigid,  one  shaves  off 
the  still  flaccid  top  portion  until  one  comes  to  a  part  that  is 
sufficiently  hard  to  be  cut  in  thin  sections.  Failure  from  over- 
freezing,  a  common  fault  of  the  novice,  is  avoided  by  adopting 
this  plan.  The  necessary  degree  of  hardness  is  soon  learned  by 
practice.  When  a  tissue  on  the  microtome  chips  under  the 
knife,  it  is  generally  due  to  over-freezing.  If  it  cuts  with  a 
rough  surface  or  tears,  it  has  not  been  sufficiently  frozen. 

Teasing  or  splitting  up  into  fine  shreds  with  needles  is  a 
quick  and  convenient  method  of  obtaining  preparations  of 
tissue  like  muscle.  It  is  also  sometimes  useful  in  separating 
parasites  from  the  tissues  in  which  they  are  embedded. 

The  tissue  to  be  teased  should  be  placed  in  a  few  drops  of 
glycerine  or  water  011  an  ordinary  slide,  and  there  manipulated. 
The  shreds  may  be  further  improved  for  microscopical  examina- 
tion by  compressing  them  under  a  cover-glass  with  or  without 
previous  staining.  Tissues  like  the  above  may  also  be  examined 
after  they  have  been  squeezed  between  two  ordinary  glass 
slides,  or  between  two  glass  plates  made  for  the  purpose.  An 
apparatus  of  the  latter  description,  such  as  is  used  in  the  Berlin 
abattoir  for  examining  the  muscles  of  pigs  for  trichinae,  will 
be  found  useful.  The  pressure  is  obtained  by  means  of  two 
screws  placed  one  at  each  end  of  the  plates,  and  the  upper  slab 
is  ruled  into  compartments,  which  are  numbered  in  such  a 
way  that  the  figures  will  appear  normal  when  looked  at  through 
the  microscope. 

Fixing  and  hardening.— Tissues  that  have  been  properly 
fixed  give  a  much  truer  picture  when  examined  under  the 
microscope.  The  object  is  to  fix  the  cells  by  putting  them  in 
contact  with  some  agent  that  will  coagulate  their  albumin 
before  it  has  undergone  post-mortem  changes.  It-  is  almost 
needless  to  say  that  tissues  to  be  properly  fixed  must  be  placed 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  35 

in  contact  with  the  agent  before  physiological  death  has  taken 
place.  The  sooner  the  tissue  is  fixed  after  the  death  of  the 
animal  the  better. 

Some  of  the  preparations  in  common  use,  such  as  corrosive 
sublimate  in  saturated  solution,  and  formalin,  all  fix  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time.  They  are  to  be  recommended  for  the 
more  delicate  work.  Miiller's  fluid  is  a  useful  hardening 
agent,  especially  for  brain  tissue.  Methylated  spirit,  a  useful 
and  inexpensive  agent  for  hardening  tissues,  is  not  sufficiently 
fixative  for  the  finer  histological  work.  .It  is  very  suitable, 
however,  for  tissues  that  do  not  require  to  be  examined  by 
the  more  delicate  methods,  and  will  in  most  cases  fulfil  the 
requirements  of  the  Meat  Inspector.  Commercial  formalin 
diluted  to  one  fourth,  i.e.  10  per  cent,  formalin,  is  the  strength 
generally  used  of  this  agent. 

The  tissues  to  be  hardened  should  be  cut  into  as  small  pieces 
as  one  can  conveniently  work  with,  and  this  should  be  done 
with  a  sharp  knife  or  razor.  The  aim  is,  of  course,  to  avoid 
tearing  the  tissues  and  to  get  the  fluid  to  penetrate  the  mass 
as  quickly  as  possible.  If  corrosive  sublimate  or  formalin  be 
used  for  fixing,  the  tissues  should  be  changed  into  alcohol 
after  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  alcohol  itself  should  be  changed 
every  day  for  at  least  three  days.  Ordinary  tissues  require 
to  remain  in  Miiller's  fluid  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks,  and 
they  should  have  about  ten  times  their  bulk  of  fluid.  It  is 
often  necessary,  however,  to  leave  brain  and  spinal  cord  in  the 
fluid  for  a  much  longer  time.  In  all  cases  it  should  be  changed 
frequently  during  the  first  week.  Tissues  hardened  in  Muller, 
however,  do  not  stain  well  with  picro-carmine.  When  spirit 
is  used  as  the  hardening  reagent,  it  is  generally  sufficient  to 
change  it  every  day  for  the  first  three  days.  On  the  fourth 
day  the  tissues  will  be  ready ;  but  most  tissues  can  remain  in 
spirit  indefinitely  without  undergoing  deterioration.  It  is 
advisable  to  dilute  the  spirit  with  one-third  of  its  volume  of 
water,  if  the  tissue  is  very  fibrous ;  this  prevents  overharden- 
ing. 


36  MEAT  INSPECTION 

Calcified  tissues  of  course  require  to  be  decalcified  before 
cutting.  They  are  usually  hardened  at  the  same  time. 

Preparation  of  hardened  tissues  for  cutting  into  sections.— 
If  the  tissue  is  to  be  cut  on  the  freezing  microtome,  a  piece 
of  convenient  size  is  taken  from  the  hardening  fluid  and  washed 
in  running  water  for  an  hour  or  more.  The  object  is  to  wash 
out  as  much  of  the  hardening  reagent  as  possible.  After 
\vashiiig,  the  piece  is  placed  in  a  gum  and  syrup  freezing  mixture 
for  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  Hardened  tissues,  however, 
may  be  left  in  gum  indefinitely,  so  long  as  the  mixture  remains 
free  from  moulds.  The  reason  for  using  the  gum  mixture  is 
that  it  does  not  freeze  into  crystals,  Avhich  would  tear  the 
tissues.  When  the  tissue  is  properly  impregnated,  it  is  put 
on  the  plate  of  the  microtome,  surrounded  by  mucilage,  and 
frozen.  One  may  begin  to  cut  sections  when  the  surrounding 
mass  of  mucilage  is  frozen  to  the  top.  The  sections  cut  are 
wiped  off  into  a  basin  of  clean  water.  If  the  sections  are  not 
over  delicate,  they  may  be  put  into  spirit  after  a  short  soaking 
in  water,  and  then  transferred  to  another  basin.  This  treat- 
ment causes  the  sections  to  spread  out  quickly,  and  gets  rid 
of  air-bubbles,  but  it  may  ruin  delicate  sections.  The  latter, 
if  left  in  water  for  a  longer  time,  will  part  with  most  of  their 
air-bubbles  and  gum  in  the  water. 

Mounting.—  The  sections  are  taken  singly  and  floated  011  to 
a  glass  slide,  on  which  they  are  spread  out  with  care.  They 
may  be  stained  on  the  slide  or  before  mounting.  When  ready 
to  receive  the  cover-glass,  a  few  drops  of  a  mounting  solution, 
Farrant's  medium— or  Canada  balsam,  according  to  the  pre- 
vious treatment  of  the  section— are  dropped  on,  and  the  cover- 
glass  is  applied.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  getting  air- 
bubbles  between  the  section  and  the  cover-glass.  Sections 
stained  on  the  slide  with  picro-carmiiie  or  alum-carmine  are 
mounted  in  Farrant  after  the  superfluous  stain  has  been 
drained  off. 

When  hsematoxylin  or  the  bacterial  stains  are  to  be  em- 
ployed, the  sections  are  placed  in  a  watch-glass  containing  the 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  37 

dye,  and  they  must  be  dehydrated  before  mounting  in  balsam. 
The  sections,  after  they  come  out  of  the  stain,  are  washed  in 
water  or  in  some  decolorising  mixture,  until  they  take  the 
required  tint.  They  are  then  transferred  to  spirit  for  about 
three  minutes ;  from  spirit  they  are  placed  in  absolute  alcohol 
for  about  the  same  time,  or  until  thoroughly  dehydrated. 
When  this  is  accomplished  they  are  transferred  to  some  clarify- 
ing reagent,  such  as  clove  oil  or  xylol,  out  of  which  they  are 
taken  by  means  of  a  copper  lifter,  and  spread  out  on  a  clean 
dry  slide.  They  should  be  allowed  to  drain  for  a  short  time 
before  the  balsam  is  put  on. 

Embedding  method.  —  When  one  has  to  examine  very 
delicate  tissues  or  those  containing  softened  centres,  it  is 
advisable  to  supply  them  with  a  supporting  framework  of 
celloidin  or  paraffin  before  cutting.  Before  embedding,  the 
block  of  tissue  should  be  thoroughly  dehydrated  in  absolute 
alcohol.  When  it  has  previously  been  preserved  in  spirit, 
twenty-four  hours  will  generally  be  found  sufficient,  if  the 
alcohol  be  changed  once  or  twice.  For  purposes  of  diagnosis, 
however,  it  can  be  dehydrated  in  a  much  shorter  time— one 
hour— by  frequently  changing  the  alcohol,  or  by  using  a  Soxlet 
tube.  The  larger  the  block  of  tissue,  the  longer  will  it  take 
the  embedding  mass  to  permeate. 

Celloidin  method.  —  Before  going  into  celloidin,  the  tissue 
should  be  thoroughly  soaked  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether. 
From  this  it  is  placed  in  a  4  per  cent,  solution  of  celloidin  in 
equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is  left  in  this  for  about  a 
week,  and  then  transferred  to  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  the 
same.  When  the  tissue  is  thoroughly  permeated— the  time 
required  varies— it  is  taken  out  with  forceps  and  waved  in  air 
for  a  few  minutes  until  a  membrane  forms  on  the  outside.  It 
is  then  hardened  in  80  per  cent,  alcohol  for  a  few  hours,  after 
which  it  may  be  cut  on  a  freezing  or  other  microtome.  If  the 
freezing  microtome  be  used,  the  block  is  first  soaked  in  water, 
wiped  and  fixed  on  the  plate  by  a  thin  layer  of  mucilage.  The 
razor  should  be  wetted  with  80  per  cent,  alcohol.  Purposely, 


38  MEAT  INSPECTION 

nothing  has  been  said  of  staining  in  bulk,  as  the  Editor  does 
not  think  it  advisable  to  multiply  the  methods  here  detailed. 
He  has  already  expressed  the  opinion  that  an  intending  Meat 
Inspector  should  serve  a  short  apprenticeship  in  the  laboratory. 

Paraffin  method.— When  the  dehydrated  tissues  are  to  be 
embedded  in  paraffin,  the  Editor  has  found  the  cedar-wood  oil 
method  to  give  the  best  results.  From  the  alcohol,  the  blocks 
of  tissue  are  placed  in  a  bath  containing  commercial  cedar-wood 
oil,  which  is  kept  on  the  top  of  the  paraffin  bath  for  several  hours; 
one  hour  is  sufficient  for  the  quick  method  to  be  afterwards 
described.  They  are  then  transferred  to  a  bath  of  paraffin 
whose  melting-point  is  45°  C.  They  are  kept  in  this  for  about 
two  hours,  during  which  time  the  paraffin  is  changed  at  least 
twice.  Next  they  are  placed  in  a  bath  of  paraffin  whose  melting- 
point  is  about  50°  C.,  and  they  may  remain  in  this  for  from 
two  to  twelve  hours.  They  should  remain  in  the  hard  paraffin 
as  short  a  time  as  is  consistent  with  thorough  penetration. 
If  the  tissue  be  left  in  too  long  it  becomes  cooked  and  hard. 
When  sufficiently  permeated,  the  blocks  of  tissue  are  taken 
out  carefully  with  forceps,  and  placed  in  a  metal  or  paper  mould 
containing  melted  paraffin  of  the  same  hardness.  When  the 
surface  of  the  paraffin  has  solidified  sufficiently,  the  mass  is 
rapidly  cooled  by  placing  the  mould  in  cold  water.  The  rapid 
cooling  prevents  the  paraffin  from  crystallising.  When  cold, 
the  paraffin  can  be  shaken  out  of  the  mould,  after  it  has  been 
warmed  around  the  sides. 

The  paraffin  block  is  then  planed  smooth  at  its  edges  with 
a  knife,  and  fixed  on  the  carrier  of  the  paraffin  microtome  by 
heat.  It  is  advisable  before  cutting  to  dip  the  block  in  soft 
paraffin  which  has  been  melted.  This  facilitates  the  formation 
of  ribbons.  Mr.  Patterson  of  the  R.  C.  P.  Laboratory,  Edinburgh, 
tells  me  that  he  often  hardens,  embeds,  and  cuts  all  in  one  day 
the  specimens  sent  for  diagnosis.  They  go  for  one  hour  into 
spirit,  one  hour  into  absolute  alcohol,  and  for  the  same  time  into 
cedar-wood  oil.  They  are  then  put  for  two  hours  into  soft 
paraffin,  which  is  twice  changed,  and  from  this  are  transferred 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  39 

to  hard  paraffin  for  an  hour  before  being  placed  in  the 
mould. 

The  paraffin  baths  are  kept  in  ovens  heated  by  water  main- 
tained at  a  temperature  slightly  above  the  melting-point.  Each 
oven  should  be  fitted  with  a  thermo-regulator. 

Manipulation  of  paraffin  sections.  —  One  or  several  sections 
in  ribbons  are  laid  out  in  a  basin  of  water  heated  nearly  to  that 
of  the  melting-point  of  the  paraffin.  In  this  the  sections  are 
spread  out,  and  they  can  easily  be  floated  on  to  the  slide.  It  is 
advisable  to  coat  the  slides  with  a  very  thin  layer  of  albumin, 
as  it  makes  the  sections  stick  faster.  A  stock  of  albuminised 
slides  can  be  kept  ready.  When  the  sections  are  mounted,  they 
are  dried  in  a  stove  over  night.  For  the  quick  method  they 
can  be  dried  over  the  flame ;  but  this  is  not  advisable,  unless 
time  is  a  great  consideration.  When  dried,  the  slides  are 
washed  in  turpentine  to  take  out  the  paraffin,  the  turpentine 
is  washed  out  with  absolute  alcohol,  and  this  again  with  spirit. 
From  the  spirit  they  may  be  transferred  into  water,  or  they 
may  be  stained  straight  away.  If  corrosive  sublimate  has  been 
used  for  fixing,  it  should  be  dissolved  out  of  the  tissue  before 
staining.  To  do  this  the  slides  are  washed  for  about  five  minutes 
in  Gram's  solution  of  iodine,  and  then  in  spirit,  until  the  iodine 
is  removed.  After  staining,  and  decolorising  if  necessary, 
the  sections  are  thoroughly  dehydrated  in  spirit  and  absolute 
alcohol.  They  are  then  clarified  in  turpentine,  and  mounted 
in  balsam. 

Cover-glass  preparations.— This  method  of  examination 
is  very  useful  when  dealing  with  fluids.  A  platinum  wire, 
which  has  been  looped  at  one  end  and  fixed  in  a  metal  carrier 
by  the  other,  is  sterilised  in  the  flame.  When  cool,  it  is  dipped 
in  the  fluid  to  be  examined,  and  the  fluid  is  then  rubbed  over 
a  cover-glass.  The  material  may  be  further  spread  out  by 
placing  another  glass  on  the  top,  pressing  the  two  together, 
then  sliding  them  apart.  The  latter  procedure  is  necessary 
with  thick  liquids.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to  make  a  good 
film  by  simply  rubbing  the  glass  over  the  surface  of  the  tissue. 


40  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

The  glasses  are  left  film  side  upwards  under  a  bell-jar  until  dry, 
or  the  drying  may  be  hastened  by  holding  the  glass  above  a 
small  Bunsen  flame.  When  dry,  the  cover  is  taken  with  a  pair 
of  forceps,  held  with  the  film  side  upwards,  and  passed  three 
times  through  the  flame  to  coagulate  the  albumin  and  fix  it 
on  the  glass.  After  this  it  may  be  stained,  decolorised,  de- 
hydrated over  the  flame,  and  mounted  in  balsam.  Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  scorch  the  film.  Instead  of  fixing  by  heat, 
the  films  may  be  placed  in  some  fixative  solution  or  vapour. 

In  examining  hard  nodules,  some  tubercles  for  example, 
it  is  better  to  mince  the  tissue  in  water  on  a  glass-slide  and  make 
the  film  from  the  emulsion. 

The  following  stains  and  preparations  will  be  found  to  meet 
most  of  the  demands  of  the  Meat  Inspector  :  — 

Decalcifying  fluid,  —  Take  a  10  per  cent,  aqueous  solution 
of  nitric  acid  and  saturate  it  with  picric  acid.  The  time  neces- 
sary for  decalcification  varies  considerably.  The  fluid  should 
be  freely  supplied  and  frequently  changed. 

Muller's  fluid.  —  Bichromate  of  potash  2  parts,  sulphate 
of  soda  1  part,  water  100  parts.  The  bicromate  should  be 
pulverised,  and  the  water  should  be  heated. 

Gum-freezing  mixture  (Cole).  —  (1)  Dissolve  1  11).  of  loaf- 
sugar  in  1  pint  of  boiling  water  ;  (2)  dissolve  4  oz.  of  gum  acacia 
in  6  oz.  of  water.  For  soaking  the  tissues  before  cutting,  take 
three  parts  of  No.  1  and  five  parts  of  No.  2.  This  mixture 
can  be  kept  in  stock  by  adding  5  grs.  of  carbolic  acid  for  each 
ounce.  For  the  more  delicate  tissues,  take  four  parts  of  No.  1 
and  five  of  No.  2. 

Picro-lithium-wrmine.— Dissolve  1-25  grms.  of  carmine  in 
50  c.c.  of  a  saturated  watery  solution  of  lithium  carbonate ; 
filter,  and  add  slowly  100  c.c.  of  a  saturated  watery  solution  of 
picric  acid.  The  quantities  must  be  measured  exactly.  For 
purposes  of  diagnosis  this  is  a  very  useful  method  of  staining 
the  tissues.  The  specimen  is  stained  on  the  slide  for  about 
three  minutes,  the  surplus  stain  is  run  off,  and  Farrant's 
medium  is  used  for  mounting  the  cover-glass. 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  41 

Borax  carmine  (Grenadier).  — Take  of  carmine  1  grm., 
borax  2  grms.,  distilled  water  200  c.c.  Specimens  stained 
by  borax  carmine  can  be  dehydrated  and  mounted  in  balsam. 

Erlich's  acid  hcematoxylin.  —  Take  of  hoematoxylin.  2 
grms.,  water,  absolute  alcohol,  and  glycerine  100  c.c.  each, 
glacial  acetic  acid  10  c.c.  ;  dissolve  the  haematoxylin  by  rubbing 
it  up  in  a  mortar  with  the  water,  pour  into  a  bottle,  add  the 
glycerine  and  alcohol,  and  then  saturate  with  alum.  The 
mixture  is  exposed  to  light,  and  occasionally  to  air,  until  it 
becomes  dark  red  in  colour,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  Fine 
histological  preparations  can  be  obtained  with  this  hsematoxylin, 
and  it  does  not  overstain.  Sections  are  left  in  the  stain  for  not 
less  than  three  minutes.  They  are  then  washed  in  alkalinised 
water  until  they  take  a  blue  colour.  Before  dehydrating,  they 
may  be  contrast  stained  with  eosin  or  Congo  red.  To  stain 
with  eosin,  the  sections  are  put  for  about  two  minutes  in  J  per 
cent,  solution,  or  the  clove  oil  may  be  tinged  with  a  solution 
in  absolute  alcohol  if  they 'have  been  cut  on  the  freezing  micro- 
tome. Congo  red  is  used  in  solution  of  1  to  1000.  It  must  not 
be  left  on  for  much  more  than  two  minutes. 

7AM  -  Neelseris  carbol  -  fuchsin.  —  Dissolve  1  grm.  of 
fuchsin.  (basic)  in  100  c.c.  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  water,  and  add  10  c.c.  of  absolute  alcohol. 

Like  the  other  bacterial  stains,  this  should  be  filtered  before 
use.  Its  action  is  hastened  by  warming,  but  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  put  sections  into  the  stain,  if  it  be  hot  enough  to  shrivel 
them.  Preparations  stained  for  the  tubercle  bacillus  are  de- 
colorised in  a  20  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  strong  acid  (sul- 
phuric). Diluted  to  one-third  with  water,  it  is  a  suitable  stain 
for  cover-glass  preparations  of  some  of  the  other  bacteria.  The 
latter  should  be  stained  for  three  minutes,  and  then  decolorised 
in  a  basin  of  water  with  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid  added.  To 
avoid  a  precipitate,  it  is  advisable  to  dip  the  covers  in  alcohol 
before  applying  the  stain.  Tubercle  preparations  are  taken 
back  and  forward  from  the  acid  to  water  until  they  show  a 
very  pale  pink  tint.  The  tissue  cells  can  be  contrast  stained 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


FIG.  1. — Cathcart  freezing  microtome. 


FIG.  2.— Reagent  bottles  fitted 
with  pipettes. 


FIG.  3.— Forceps 
for  holding 
cover-glasses. 


FIG.  4.— a  and  6, 
Staining  dish,  and 
cover  for  same. 


METHOD  OF  INSPECTION  43 

by  dipping  for  two  or  three  minutes  in  one  of  the  methyl-blue 
preparations,  but  methyl-blue,  if  left  on  too  long,  may  wash 
out  the  fuchsin  from  the  bacteria. 

Plant's  method.— This  can  be  used  for  tubercle,  but  it  is 
better  suited  for  the  actinomyces  clubs. 

The  stain  is  carbol-fuchsiii.  The  decolorising  fluid  is  spirit 
saturated  with  picric  acid.  The  sections  go  from  the  decolor- 
ising fluid  into  clean  spirit. 

Kiilines  carbol-bluc.  —Dissolve  1-5  grms.  of  methylene-blue 
in  100  c.c.  of  5  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  and 
add  10  c.c.  of  absolute  alcohol. 

Loffler's  blue.— Take  of  a  saturated  alcoholic  solution  of 
methylene-blue  three  parts,  and  add  one  part  of  1  to  10,000 
aqueous  solution  of  caustic  potash. 

Oarbol-thionine-blue  (Nicolle).— Take  of  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  thionine-blue  in  50  per  cent,  alcohol,  10  c.c.,  and  add 
100  c.c.  of  1  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  water. 

Sections  or  cover-glasses  stained  by  the  blue  preparations 
should  be  decolorised  in  water,  which  may  be  acidulated  or  not. 
If  it  be  found  that  alcohol  removes  too  much  of  the  stain,  the 
specimen  can  be  dried  on  the  slide  in  the  stove  and  clarified 
in  xylol  or  turpentine  before  mounting. 

Gram's  stain.— Take  of  aniline  water  (water  saturated 
with  aniline  oil  and  filtered)  1.0  c.c.,  absolute  alcohol  1  c.c.,  satur- 
ated solution  of  gentian-violet  in  alcohol  1  c.c.  This  stain 
should  not  be  made  up  in  large  quantities,  as  it  does  not  keep. 
Sections  and  cover-glasses  are  left  in  the  stain  for  five  minutes. 
They  are  then  transferred  to  the  following  solution,  until  they 
become  black— say  three  minutes. 

Iodine  solution.— Take  of  iodine  1  part,  iodide  of  potassium 
2  parts,  water  300  parts.  The  superfluous  colouring  matter  is 
washed  out  afterwards  with  spirit  and  absolute  alcohol. 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS 

IN  this  section  have  been  placed  those  processes  which  are  known 
in  pathology  as  degeneration  and  infiltration.  The  neoplasms 
will  also  be  dealt  with  here,  as  they  are  not  of  sufficient  interest 
to  the  Meat  Inspector  to  merit  a  special  section. 

INFILTRATIONS 

The  materials  which  may  infiltrate  a  tissue  are :  fat,  cal- 
careous particles,  and  several  pigmented  substances  derived 
from  the  blood  or  from  an  extraneous  source. 


FATTY  INFILTRATION 

With  the  exception  of  the  liver,  fatty  infiltration  is  seldom 
seen  in  the  organs,  but  the  various  storehouses  for  fat,  such 
as  the  mesentery,  become  enormously  enlarged  in  fat  stock. 
A  fatty  liver  is  enlarged.  On  section,  its  tissue  is  less  firm  than 
that  of  a  normal  organ,  and  it  is  yellow  in  colour.  To  the 
fingers  it  feels  greasy.  According  to  the  Editor's  experience, 
fatty  infiltration  of  the  liver  in  cattle  is  mostly  associated  with 
cirrhosis  caused  by  flukes.  In  this  case  the  organ  is  very 
firm  externally,  but  its  substance  is  easily  broken  down.  The 
microscope  shows  that  the  liver  cells  contain  refractile  oil 
droplets.  They  are  distended,  and  the  nucleus  is  often  dis- 
placed, but  it  takes  up  the  nuclear  stains. 

Inspection.—  There  is  no  reason  why  organs  which  are  in- 
filtrated by  fat  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  market,  unless 
cirrhotic  changes  be  present  as  well. 

44 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         45 

CALCIFICATION 

Infiltration  by  calcareous  material  usually  occurs  at  the  seat 
of  degenerated  tissue,  such  as  a  tubercle.  Many  of  the  seats 
will  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  various  diseases. 
Cattle  and  sheep  from  the  Argentine  Eepublic  sometimes  show 
calcareous  infiltration  of  the  lungs.  The  Editor  has  received  a 
specimen  of  this  kind  from  the  late  Mr.  Duguid,  who  obtained 
it  from  an  ox  slaughtered  at  Deptford.  The  affected  portions 
resembled  pieces  of  calcified  sponge.  Calcified  tissue  is  very 
hard ;  it  grates  under  the  knife  when  cut,  and  stony  particles 
of  a  grey  or  black  colour  are  seen  on  the  surface  of  section. 

Inspection.  —  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  calcified 
tissues  should  be  seized,  unless  the  number  of  particles  is  trivial. 

INFILTRATION  BY  PIGMENT 

Hcematoidin.— Hsematoidiii  is  a  derivative  of  blood  pigment. 
It  occurs  at  the  seat  of  injuries  which  have  been  followed  by 
extravasation  of  blood.  It  is  one  of  the  substances  which  gives 
rise  to  the  discoloration  of  tissue  which  follows  upon  a  bruise. 

Lutein. — This  is  yellow  pigment  which  is  found  in  the  corpora 
lutea  of  the  ovary.  Sometimes  the  ovaries  of  cows  are  quite 
fibrous,  and  their  tissue  is  universally  infiltrated  by  lutein. 

Melanin.— Melanin  is  a  brownish  black  pigment,  which 
occurs  in  granules.  It  is  a  normal  constituent  of  the  body, 
but  it  sometimes  accumulates  in  pathological  growths,  such 
as  neoplasms— melanomata,  melanotic  sarcomata.  Melanotic 
fibromata  are  by  no  means  rare  in  oxen.  In  these  also,  but 
more  especially  in  young  calves,  melanotic  patches  may  be  found 
under  the  skin,  on  the  membranes,  and  in  the  organs,  such  as 
the  spleen,  the  liver,  and  the  lungs.  The  patches  vary  from 
mere  specks  to  the  dimensions  of  a  half-crown  piece  or  larger. 
This  condition  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  melanosis."  The 
general  condition  of  the  animal  may  be  quite  good.  Melanin 
is  soluble  in  hot  liq.  potassae. 


46  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Bile.— Jaundice  is  the  name  given  to  pigmentation  of  the 
tissues  by  bile.  It  arises  in  the  course  of  catarrhal  affections 
of  the  bile  ducts,  or  of  the  duodenum  when  the  orifice  of  the 
main  duct  becomes  obstructed.  The  bile  is  absorbed  into  the 
circulation,  and  it  pigments  the  tissues.  The  colouring  matter 
of  the  bile  in  herbivorous  animals  is  biliverdin,  which  is  very 
nearly  related  to  the  bilirubin  of  the  carnivora. 

The  pigmentation  is  well  seen  in  the  adipose  tissues  and 
serous  membranes,  but  its  intensity  varies  greatly.  All  the 
tissues,  with  exception  of  the  muscles,  may  be  of  a  deep 
yellow  colour,  or  only  a  faint  tinge  may  be  discerned  in  those 
which  normally  approach  the  white.  A  yellow  colour  of  the  fat 
is  not  always  attributable  to  bile ;  it  may  have  been  due  to  the 
feeding.  In  old  cows  the  fat  is  often  very  yellow  in  colour,  the 
tint  being  due  to  a  lipo-chrome.  In  bad  cases  of  jaundice  the 
muscles  are  of  a  dark  brown  colour.  If  any  doubt  exists  as  to 
the  nature  of  the  pigments,  Gmelin's  or  Pettenkofer's  tests 
may  be  applied. 

Post-mortem  discoloration. — When  an  animal  has  been  dead 
some  time  before  the  viscera  have  been  removed,  local  patches 
of  discoloration  are  often  present.  These  are  due  to  stain- 
ing with  bile  which  has  oozed  through  the  gall  bladder,  and 
to  decomposition  of  the  blood  owing  to  gases  set  free  from 
the  fermenting  mass  of  ingesta  in  the  intestines.  This 
takes  place  more  rapidly,  of  course,  in  hot  weather  than  in 
cold. 

The  changes  are  seen  in  the  abdominal  region.  Bile  stains 
the  tissues  a  greenish  yellow  colour,  and  the  decomposition 
changes  render  them  green  or  even  black.  The  latter  colour  is 
due  to  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  iron  by  the  action  of  H2S  on 
the  iron  of  the  blood.  The  spleen,  owing  to  the  amount  of  iron 
it  contains,  frequently  becomes  black,  although  the  other  organs 
are  almost  unchanged.  In  sheep  one  of  the  first  parts  to  show 
the  green  colour  is  the  kidney  fat. 

Soot.— Extraneous  pigments  in  the  form  of  soot  or  carbon 
may  be  found  in  the  lungs  and  the  adjoining  lymphatic  glands. 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         47 

The  Editor  has  seen  the  lungs  of  a  cow  almost  black  with 
carbon.  The  animal  had  wandered  into  a  bed  of  soot  deposited 
in  a  field. 

Inspection.—  Tissues  containing  an  abnormal  pigment  must 
be  looked  upon  as  unmarketable.  It  will  seldom  be  necessary  to 
seize  the  whole  carcase,  however,  except  in  some  cases  of  jaundice. 
In  severe  cases  of  jaundice  the  aspect  of  the  flesh  is  very  repulsive. 
Moreover,  it  is  often  flabby,  and  its  flavour  is  altered.  Total 
seizure  should  be  applied  to  carcases  of  the  latter  description. 
Bile,  however,  is  not  a  poison,  and  one  would  not  be  justified  in 
seizing  a  carcase  on  account  of  a  faint  yellow  tinge  in  the 
membranes. 

The  exact  degree  of  pigmentation  which  calls  for  seizure 
must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  inspector,  for  it  cannot  be 
defined. 

DEGENEEATION 

One  understands  by  degeneration  that  the  cell  albumin  is 
converted  into  some  other  substance,  such  as  fat. 

CLOUDY  SWELLING 

This  is  a  condition  in  which  albuminous  granules  appear 
in  the  cells  or  fibres  of  an  organ.  The  changes  in  a  cloudy 
organ  are  not  very  apparent  to  the  naked  eye,  but  the 
microscope  shows  that  the  cells  are  swollen,  and  their  nuclei 
are  somewhat  obscured  by  the  presence  of  numerous  dark 
granules  having  a  peppery  appearance. 

Inspection.  —  Cloudy  swelling  is  a  symptom  of  certain 
systemic  troubles,  such  as  arsenical  poisoning  or  bacterial 
affections,  which  might  lead  to  the  whole  carcase  being  con- 
demned. If  the  carcase  is  fit  to  pass,  however,  it  is  unlikely 
that  a  cloudy  condition  in  an  organ  would  ever  be  noticed, 
unless  one  was  looking  specially  for  signs  of  poisoning  (see 
ALTERATIONS  DUE  TO  DRUGS). 


48  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

FATTY  DEGENERATION 

In  fatty  degeneration  the  cell  albumin  is  converted  into  oil. 
This  change  is  met  with  in  liver  cells,  renal  epithelium,  and 
muscle  fibre. 

An  organ  in  which  fatty  degeneration  is  the  only  change,  is 
usually  smaller  and  softer  than  normal.  Its  colour  is  yellow- 
reddish  yellow  in  the  case  of  the  heart  and  liver— and  its 
consistence  may  be  quite  pulpy. 

With  the  microscope  one  sees  that  some  of  the  cells  have 
disappeared.  Many  of  the  remaining  ones  contain  small 
oil  droplets,  and  the  nuclei  are  lost  in  some  cases.  The  dis- 
appearance of  the  nuclei  by  conversion  into  oil  enables  one  to 
distinguish  this  condition  from  fatty  infiltration.  The  oil 
droplets  can  be  stained  black  with  perosmic  acid,  •  5  per  cent. 

In  cattle  and  sheep,  fatty  degeneration  is  most  frequently 
found  in  the  liver  as  a  complication  of  cirrhosis.  In  this  case 
the  organ  is  enlarged. 

Inspectio n.  —  Organs  in  a  state  of  fatty  degeneration  should 
be  regarded  as  unmarketable.  Their  appearance  is  often  repul- 
sive, and  the  change  may  have  been  due  to  some  serious  trouble, 
such  as  poisoning  by  arsenic  or  phosphorus.  Moreover,  when 
one  buys  liver,  one  expects  that  it  will  contain  no  more  than 
the  physiological  amount  of  fat. 

AMYLOID  DISEASE 

This  is  a  condition  in  which  the  organs  become  invaded  by  a 
waxy -looking  material.  The  spleen,  the  liver,  and  the  kidney 
are  the  commonest  seats  of  the  change;  but  it  is  almost  unknown 
in  animals  of  the  abattoir.  It  is  sometimes  met  with,  however, 
in  the  livers  of  tuberculous  pheasants.  An  amyloid  organ  is 
enlarged,  usually  firmer  than  normal,1  and  presents  a  pale, 
smooth,  and  wax-like  surface  on  section.  In  the  spleen,  how- 
ever, the  Malpighian  bodies  may  project  (Sago  spleen). 

1  The  amyloid  liver  of  the  horse  is  sometimes  pulpy. 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         49 

The  microscope  shows  the  material  to  be  present  in  the 
capillary  walls,  the  middle  coat  of  small  vessels,  and  the  con- 
nective tissues.  The  cells  do  not  contain  it,  but  they  may  be 
fatty. 

Inspection.  —  Amyloid  organs  should  be  seized. 

NECROSIS 

Necrosis  is  physiological  death  of  a  tissue,  which  occurs 
locally.  The  condition  will  be  again  referred  to  (see  BACTERIAL 
NECROSIS).  The  dead  tissue  is  white  in  colour,  and  is  usually 
separated  from  the  healthy  parts  by  a  more  or  less  abrupt  line. 
Its  albumin  has  passed  from  the  fluid  to  the  solid  state ;  it  is 
coagulated  and  firmer  than  normal.  The  microscopic  appear- 
ances are  described  in  the  chapter  on  Bacterial  Necrosis. 

Dead  tissue  which  is  in  communication  with  the  external  air 
is  apt  to  putrefy.  The  dead  part  softens  under  the  action  of 
microbes.  It  becomes  livid  in  colour,  and  gives  off  a  stinking 
odour  (moist  gangrene). 

Inspection.— Necrotic  tissue  should  not  be  allowed  into  the 
market.  If  moist  gangrene  has  set  in,  the  flesh  may  be  fevered. 
In  this  case  the  carcase  will  be  unmarketable.  If  the  effects 
of  putrefaction  are  purely  local,  the  diseased  area  should  be 
removed,  with  a  wide  margin,  before  the  rest  of  the  carcase 
is  passed.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  lymphatic 
glands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  slough. 


NEOPLASMS 

It  is  not  necessary  to  describe  all  the  neoplasms  in  detail. 
They  are  new  growths  of  what  might  be  called  pathological  tissue, 
and  as  such  are  unfit  for  human  food.  The  benign  neoplasms, 
although  they  may  be  multiple,  do  not  reproduce  themselves  in 
remote  organs.  Those  most  frequently  met  with  in  the  abattoir 
are  the  fibrous  tumour  and  its  varieties— mvxom a  and  melan- 


50  MEAT  INSPECTION 

oma,  lipoma,  and,  more  rarely,  the  myoma.  The  fibromata 
are  found  in  connection  with  the  skin,  and  not  infrequently 
in  the  uterus.  In  the  latter  situation  thev  mav  reach  an 


FIG.  5. — Section  through  ah  intestinal  lipoma,  showing  the  strangulated 
bowel  at  two  places  (nat.  size). 

enormous  size.  Their  structure  is  that  of  white  fibrous  tissue, 
but  myxomatous  areas  are  often  present.  The  melaiiotic 
fibroma  is  found  on  the  skin,  most  frequently  in  red  oxen. 
The  myoma,  which  is  composed  of  non-striped  muscle  cells, 
is  sometimes  found  in  connection  with  the  genital  organs  of 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         51 

the  sow.     It  is  usually  of  large  size,  and  may  show  calcareous 
areas. 

The  lipomata  have  the  structure  of  adipose  tissue.  They  are 
sometimes  found  under  the  skin  or  in  the  abdominal  cavities  of 
the  ox.  Fig.  5  is  a  section  of  a  lipoma  which  weighed  about 
50  Ib.  Two  portions  of  the  bowel  are  seen  passing  through 
the  mass. 


FIG.  6. — Microscopical  section  ot  a  carcinoma 
(Reichcrt,  obj.  3). 


The  malignant  neoplasms  are  of  more  importance,  as  second- 
ary metastatic  growths  may  invade  the  internal  organs  after 
the  manner  of  an  infective  disease.  It  should  be  mentioned, 
however,  that  the  malignant  tumours  do  not  display  the  same 
tendency  to  become  generalised  in  animals  as  in  human  beings. 
There  are  three  chief  forms,  viz.  Sarcoma,  Carcinoma,  and 
Adenoma. 

Sarcoma.— The  sarcoma  is  a  neoplasm  composed  of  embryonic 


5  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

connective  tissue  cells,  which  may  be  either  round  or  spindle- 
shaped.  The  elements  tend  to  remain  embryonic,  but  occasion- 
ally the  mass  of  cells  has  a  fibrous  capsule.  The  spindle-cell 
variety  is  always  mixed  with  round  cells.  Giant  cells  are  almost 
unknown.  Kound  cell  sarcomata  are  seen  in  connection  with 
the  skin  and  mucous  membranes.  The  Editor  has  on  several 


FIG.  7. — Microscopical  section  of  an  adenoma  in  the  liver  of 
an  ox  (Reichert,  obj.  3). 


occasions  found  multiple  round-cell  sarcomata  in  the  kidney  of 
the  ox. 

The  spindle-cell  variety  is  found  usually  in  connection  with 
bones,  particularly  those  of  the  jaw  in  the  ox.  In  one  case 
observed  by  the  Editor  in  a  cow,  the  inferior  maxilla  and 
several  other  bones,  including  the  ilium,  were  the  seats  of  these 
neoplasms.  Some  of  the  bones  were  quite  fibrous  in  the  region 
of  the  growth. 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS         53 

Carcinoma.  — A  cancer  consists  of  a  mass  of  epithelial  cells 
embedded  in  vascular  connective  tissue  (Fig.  6).  They  are 
uncommon  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  rare  in  the  pig. 

The  tumours  are  found  usually  on  the  skin,  and  on  mucous 
membranes,  in  the  liver,  and  frequently  in  the  lymph  glands 
in  communication  with  these  structures. 

Adenoma.— The  adenomata  are  made  up  of  fibrous  tissue 
and  epithelium  arranged  like  a  gland  (Fig.  7).  The  acinal 
arrangement  is  the  commonest.  Sometimes  the  cells  are  in 
dense  groups,  which  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  delicate 
strand  of  connective  tissue.  In  another  form  there  is  a  distinct 
acinal  space.  The  cells  are  not  secretory,  but  the  acini  some- 
times contain  colloid  material.  The  Editor  has  met  with 
several  cases  of  adenomata  in  the  livers  of  sheep  and  oxen, 
and  one  case  in  the  intestines  and  mesenteric  glands  of  a 
sheep. 

Inspection.—  Experimental  evidence  is  against  the  idea  that 
the  malignant  neoplasms  can  be  conveyed  either  by  inoculation 
or  ingestion  of  the  growths.  The  carcase  of  an  affected  animal, 
however,  may  be  emaciated  and  unfit  for  the  market  when 
important  organs  have  been  invaded. 

FEVERED  FLESH 

We  do  not  know  all  the  causes  of  the  condition  termed 
fever  or  pyrexia,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  rise  in  tem- 
perature is  due  to  the  presence  of  poisons,  usually  of  bacterial 
origin,  in  the  circulation. 

During  fever  the  metabolism  is  increased  in  the  tissues 
throughout  the  body.  The  muscles  provide  a  good  deal  of  the 
fuel  for  the  increased  combustion.  The  organs  and  muscles 
may  be  in  a  condition  of  cloudy  swelling,  but  the  latter  are 
frequently  darker  than  normal  in  colour,  and  show  small 
haemorrhages  in  their  substance. 

It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  flesh  will  be  dark 
in  colour  because  the  temperature  was  high  at  the  time  of 


54  MEAT  INSPECTION 

death  ;  but  it  often  happens  that  the  fevered  animal,  being  near 
the  point  of  death  before  coming  into  the  abattoir,  does  not 
bleed  well,  and  its  flesh  appears  darker  than  normal. 

Inspection.— The  duty  of  the  inspector  will  depend  on 
whether  the  animal  has  been  suffering  from  some  bacterial 
disease  which  is  transmissible  to  man,  and  on  the  appearance 
of  the  flesh. 

To  the  mind  of  the  Meat  Inspector  the  term  "  fevered  flesh  " 
generally  conveys  the  idea  that  the  muscles  are  very  dark  in 
colour,  and  albuminous  or  soapy  to  the  touch.  Flesh  of  this 
description  is  repulsive,  but  the  exact  degree  of  darkness 
which  should  exclude  it  from  the  market  is  impossible  to  lay 
down.  That  must  be  left  to  the  inspector.  The  procedure  in 
the  case  of  an  animal  affected  with  a  contagious  disease  is  dis- 
cussed in  the  various  chapters  dealing  with  that  subject. 


WOUNDS 

Trivial  wounds  unaccompanied  by  septic  changes  hardly 
call  for  notice. 

It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  an  animal  gets  badly 
injured  during  transit.  The  injuries  may  consist  of  multiple 
bruises,  or  a  limb  may  be  fractured. 

A  bruise  is  accompanied  by  extravasation  of  blood  under 
the  skin  and  into  the  tissues.  The  muscles  around  a  frac- 
tured bone  are  also  infiltrated  by  blood,  and  the  fibres  are 
usually  lacerated.  The  dark-red  condition  of  the  flesh  might, 
at  first  sight,  lead  one  to  suspect  black  quarter;  but  in  the 
case  of  fracture,  the  broken  bone  and  the  absence  of  emphysema 
will  be  sufficient  to  determine  the  diagnosis. 

Counter  irritants,  such  as  mustard,  applied  to  the  skin, 
may  sometimes  produce  very  marked  lesions.  It  is  usually  in 
the  region  of  the  chest  that  mustard  is  applied.  The  sub- 
cutaneous tissue  is  swollen  and  infiltrated  by  lymph,  which 
issues  as  yellow  droplets  from  the  injured  surface. 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         55 

Inspection.  —  Suppurating  and  gangrenous  wounds  are 
dealt  with  elsewhere. 

When  an  animal  has  been  badly  injured,  even  if  the  wound 
be  not  septic,  the  flesh  throughout  the  carcase  may  be  very 
dark  in  colour.  It  often  presents  an  unbled  appearance,  and 
it  generally  fails  to  set  firmly.  Under  these  circumstances 
it  should  be  considered  unmarketable. 

When  the  effects  of  the  injury  are  purely  local,  the  carcase 
may  be  passed  after  the  discoloured  portions  have  been  re- 
moved. 

A  large  portion  of  a  carcase  may  have  to  be  condemned, 
owing  to  the  effects  of  a  severe  counter-irritant  applied  to  the 
skin.  As  these  agents,  however,  are  generally  employed  in 
the  treatment  of  inflammatory  diseases,  there  may,  in  this 
case,  be  a  good  reason  for  condemning  the  whole  carcase. 

KUPTURE   OF   THE   (ESOPHAGUS 

When  unsliced  turnips  are  fed  to  oxen,  it  sometimes  happens 
that  a  portion  of  the  root  becomes  impacted  in  the  oesophagus. 
During  an  attempt  to  force  the  obstructing  body  onwards 
with  a  probang,  the  oesophagus  may  be  ruptured.  This  usually 
occurs  in  the  thoracic  portion  of  the  organ.  After  an  accident 
of  this  kind  the  animal  has  to  be  slaughtered. 

The  subcutaneous  tissues  in  the  region  of  the  neck  become 
emphysematous,  owing  to  gases  which  have  penetrated  from 
the  rumen.  A  small  quantity  of  ingesta  is  found  in  the  chest 
cavity,  and  the  pleura  may  show  signs  of  septic  inflammation. 
The  flesh  is  soft  and  watery.  It  has  a  dirty  red  colour,  and 
gives  off  a  distinct  aniline  oil  or  turnipy  odour.  It  may 
also  have  a  somewhat  sour  smell.  These  changes  are  par- 
ticularly well  seen  in  the  intercostal  flesh.  The  odour  is 
apparently  due  to  aromatic  agents  absorbed  from  the  fer- 
menting mass  in  the  rumen. 

Inspection.— The  flesh  of  a  choked  animal,  as  it  is  popularly 
called,  is  particularly  repulsive  on  account  of  its  appearance 


5  6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

and  smell.  Even  if  the  animal  has  been  slaughtered  before 
pleurisy  has  set  in,  the  condition  of  the  flesh  will  render  the 
carcase  unmarketable. 

The  odour  is  best  observed  when  a  fresh  cut  is  made  into 
the  substance  of  the  muscles. 


SUFFOCATION 

Sheep  are  very  often  suffocated  by  being  trampled  on  by 
their  companions  during  transit  in  overcrowded  railway  trucks 
or  in  market-pens.  The  Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Sanitary 
and  Market  Inspector  shows  that  in  1898  fifty-one  carcases 
of  sheep  were  condemned  at  the  Edinburgh  abattoir  on 
account  of  alterations  due  to  suffocation. 

In  an  animal  dead  from  suffocation  the  subcutaneous 
surface  will  be  found  to  have  a  generalised  red  colour,  which 
arises  from  fulness  of  the  capillary  vessels.  The  lungs  are 
congested.  The  flesh  does  not  set  firmly.  It  is  dark  red  in 
colour;  indeed,  it  may  not  have  been  bled. 

Inspection.  —  Carcases  presenting  the  above  appearances 
are  unmarketable.  In  Edinburgh  they  are  always  seized. 

FATIGUE 

If  an  animal  has  been  fatigued  by  a  long  journey  on  foot, 
it  should  not  be  slaughtered  until  it  has  recovered  from  the 
effects  of  the  march.  Kest  is  all  the  more  necessary  when 
the  animal  has  been  lamed  during  the  journey. 

During  unwonted  exertion,  waste  products  of  a  poisonous 
nature— crea tine,  creatinine,  etc.— accumulate  in  the  muscles. 
These  substances  cause  temporary  alterations  in  the  appear- 
ance and  composition  of  the  flesh,  and  they  may  give  rise  to 
fatigue  fever.  The  flesh  of  an  animal  killed  soon  after  a 
fatiguing  journey  does  not  set  firmly.  It  is  often  very  dark 
in  colour  and  sticky  to  the  touch.  It  has  all  the  character- 
istics of  fevered  flesh.  Moreover,  it  is  tough,  and  diffi- 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         57 

cult  to  digest  when  cooked.  Animals  landed  from  a  long 
sea  voyage  often  show  oedema  of  the  parts  which  have  come 
most  in  contact  with  the  hard  decks.  This  is  best  observed 
in  the  pectoral  muscles. 

The  bodies  of  animals  which  have  been  hunted  to  death 
enter  soon  into  rigor  mortis,  which  passes  off  quickly.  Small 
haemorrhages  are  often  found  in  the  muscular  tissue. 

Inspection.—  The  flesh  of  fatigued  animals  is  usually  un- 
marketable from  its  appearance  alone.  It  has  also  been 
credited,  however,  with  giving  rise  to  serious  symptoms  of 
poisoning  in  individuals  who  have  partaken  of  it. 

Several  oxen,  which  had  been  newly  imported,  broke  away 
from  the  railway  station  at  Paris,  and  were  chased  for  a 
considerable  distance.  Some  of  them  died  of  fatigue.  Eedon 
injected  from  1  to  15  c.c.  of  their  serum  into  the  veins  of  three 
rabbits,  with  the  result  that  the  animals  all  died  in  from  five 
hours  to  two  days. 

Such  observations  are  of  course  interesting,  but  they  have 
little  bearing  on  the  effects  of  the  flesh  when  ingested.  They 
do  not  even  furnish  conclusive  evidence  that  the  serum  of 
fatigued  animals  is  specially  nocuous,  for  the  serum  of  a  normal 
animal,  if  injected  into  one  of  a  different  species,  may  cause 
death. 

Pleindoux  has  observed  that  the  flesh  of  bulls  killed  in 
the  arena  putrefies  very  rapidly.  Fournol  stated  that  broth 
made  from  the  flesh  of  fatigued  animals  soon  became  sour  and 
putrefied ;  the  explanation  being  that  the  products  of  tissue 
disintegration  ferment  more  quickly  than  the  tissues  them- 
selves. 

ALTERATIONS  IN  THE  FLESH  PRODUCED  BY  DRUGS 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  animals  which  have 
been  under  medical  treatment  are  sent  to  the  abattoir,  the 
owners  preferring  to  slaughter  them  rather  than  take  the 
risk  of  their  dying. 


5  8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Some  of  the  drugs  they  have  been  receiving  may  have 
produced  alterations  in  the  flesh  ;  or  it  may  be  that  the  animal 
has  been  poisoned. 

The  volatile  drugs,  such  as  ether,  turpentine,  carbolic 
acid,  creasote,  camphor,  and  the  aromatics,  may  give  an  odour 
to  the  flesh. 

If  an  animal  be  killed  while  in  physic,  especially  in  the 
case  of  saline  purgatives,  the  flesh  may  be  soft  and  watery, 
owing  to  a  hydraemic  condition  of  the  blood.  When  an 
animal  has  been  poisoned,  it  seldom  happens  that  the  inspector 
is  furnished  with  a  history  of  the  case.  He  may,  from  an 
ordinary  examination,  suspect  poisoning,  but  in  the  absence 
of  a  history  it  might  require  a  laborious  chemical  analysis 
to  enable  him  to  give  a  decided  opinion. 

The  metallic  and  irritant  poisons  produce  gastro-enteritis. 
The  alimentary  membrane  in  this  case  shows  patches  of  con- 
gestion, which  are  sometimes  hsemorrhagic.  Such  lesions, 
however,  may  arise  from  other  causes ;  they  are  not  pathog- 
nomonic  of  poisoning  by  any  special  drug.  The  odour  of  the 
intestinal  contents,  as  in  the  case  of  carbolic  acid,  creasote,  and 
phosphorus,  in  combination  with  the  lesions,  may  enable  one 
to  make  a  correct  diagnosis. 

There  are  some  poisons,  however,  such  as  arsenic,  which 
are  odourless  in  the  tissues.  There  are  others  which  cause 
no  definite  lesions,  such  is  strychnine.  Phosphorus,  arsenic, 
and  strychnine  are  cumulative  poisons ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
are  stored  up  in  certain  organs— in  the  liver,  for  example. 
The  first  two  cause  fatty  changes  in  the  organs ;  but  death 
may  have  supervened  before  extensive  fatty  degeneration 
has  had  time  to  take  place.  The  only  apparent  changes  in 
the  case  of  strychnine  are  those  of  asphyxia. 

As  the  case  is  with  the  iiigesta,  the  liver  of  an  animal 
poisoned  by  phosphorus  gives  oft'  a  more  or  less  pungent  odour, 
which  is  intensified  by  heating  the  material  under  examina- 
tion. Every  odour  is  intensified  by  raising  the  temperature. 
If,  in  the  case  of  phosphorus,  the  warming  process  be  con- 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         59 

ducted  in  a  dark  room,  the  characteristic  luminous  appear- 
ance will  be  seen.  When  the  poison  is  lead  or  arsenic,  one 
may  find  pieces  of  lead-foil  and  masses  of  dry  lead  or  arsenical 
paint  in  some  part  of  the  alimentary  track.  They  are 
occasionally  found  in  the  rumen  of  the  ox,  for  example. 

Inspection.— In  acute  cases  of  poisoning  the  flesh  is  usually 
fevered ;  often  it  has  an  unbled  appearance.  The  changes 
present  in  the  tissues  and  organs  are  usually  so  marked  that 
the  carcase  would  be  condemned  as  unmarketable,  irrespective 
of  the  cause.  In  a  number  of  fowls  poisoned  by  phosphorus, 
however,  the  Editor  found  a  strong  odour  in  the  ingesta  and 
liver,  and  yet  the  flesh  was  practically  normal  in  appearance. 
In  poisoning  by  stiychnine  it  has  been  shown  that  the  flesh 
contains  the  drug. 

Lewin  poisoned  fowls,  which  are  very  resistant,  by  adminis- 
tering strychnine  in  doses  of  -2  grms.  The  flesh  was  given 
to  dogs  in  portions  of  125  grms.  The  first  meal  made  the 
dog  ill ;  the  second  gave  rise  to  fatal  convulsions. 

One  must  admit,  then,  that  the  flesh  of  animals  poisoned 
by  strychnine  is  unfit  for  consumption;  but  there  will  be 
nothing  to  arouse  the  inspector's  suspicions  unless  he  has 
seen  the  animal  during  life. 

In  cases  of  chronic  poisoning  by  arsenic  or  lead,  the  animal 
is  emaciated,  and  the  organs  are  usually  fatty.  The  flesh 
may  be  watery  and  anaemic  in  appearance,  but  it  is  not  always 
markedly  altered.  The  fate  of  the  carcase  will  usually  be 
decided  by  its  condition,  for  the  inspector  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  diagnose  poisoning  unless  he  has  obtained  a  history 
of  the  animal  and  has  seen  it  during  life.  As  arsenic  enters 
into  the  composition  of  some  sheep-dips  and  ointments,  one  is 
helped  to  a  decision  by  the  state  of  the  skin  and  the  presence 
of  diseased  conditions  against  which  this  drug  is  employed. 

In  cases  of  chronic  poisoning  it  is  doubtful  whether  these 
metallic  poisons  are  ever  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  cause 
serious  harm  to  an  individual  who  may  partake  of  the  animal's 
flesh,  for  under  ordinary  circumstances  he  will  only  consume  a 


60  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

small  portion.  If  it  be  known,  however,  that  the  animal  has 
suffered  from  poisoning  by  arsenic  or  lead,  the  consumer 
should  have  the  benefit  of  the  doubt,  even  if  the  flesh  be 
marketable  in  appearance.  The  degenerated  organs  should, 
in  any  case,  be  dealt  with  as  indicated  with  regard  to  cases  of 
fatty  degeneration. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  FOOD 

The  influence  of  certain  food-stuffs  on  the  flesh  and  fat 
is  undeniable,  but  exaggerated  ideas  of  their  effect  are  enter- 
tained by  many  farmers. 

The  flesh  of  young  animals  fed  exclusively  on  milk  is  soft 
and  white.  It  becomes  darker  and  firmer  as  they  begin  to 
eat  grass  and  meal. 

The  fat  of  animals  which  have  been  forced  on  maize  or 
cake  may  be  yellow  and  wanting  in  consistence.  The  colour 
is  due  either  to  lipo-chromes  or  to  a  high  proportion  of  olein, 
and  the  want  of  consistence  is  caused  by  the  latter  substance. 
As  regards  the  reputed  influence  of  maize  on  the  fat,  it  should 
be  mentioned  that  the  adipose  tissue  of  American  oxen  is 
white  and  firm,  although  maize  enters  largely  into  their 
diet. 

It  is  known  from  the  experiments  of  Lebedeff  and  Munk,  that 
if  starved  dogs  be  fed  on  sheep  fat  they  store  it  directly,  without 
wraiting  to  transform  it  into  dog  fat.  The  fat  deposited  under 
these  circumstances  has  a  melting-point  of  about  40°  C.,  whereas 
the  normal  fat  of  the  dog  is  semi-fluid  at  20°  C.  When  colza 
oil  was  used,  the  fat  deposited  melted  at  23°  C.  It  contained 
82-4  per  cent,  of  oleic  acid,  while  normal  dog  fat  gives  about 
65  per  cent,  of  this  substance.  Erucic  acid,  a  constituent  of 
colza  oil,  was  also  present.  When  linseed  oil  was  given  to  the 
starved  animals,  the  fat  deposited  remained  fluid  at  0°  C. 
These  experiments  offer  a  possible  explanation  of  the  con- 
flicting statements  which  have  been  made  with  regard  to 
the  influence  of  certain  food-stuffs  on  the  fat  of  animals, 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS         61 

viz.  that  it  depends  largely  on  the  condition  of  the  animal 
when  first  put  on  the  diet. 

The  fat  of  animals  fed  on  distillery  grains  is  said  to  be 
yellowish  in  colour.  Rancid  cakes  give  a  special  odour  to  the 
flesh.  Turnips  accentuate  the  cow  odour  of  the  flesh  of  cows ; 
and  when  the  animal  has  been  choked  it  has  a  marked 
turnipy  smell  (see  KuPTURp]  OF  THE  (ESOPHAGUS). 

In  Scandinavia  many  of  the  cattle  are  ichthyophagous. 
Their  fat  is  oily,  and  it  both  tastes  and  smells  fishy.  The  same 
thing  may  be  sometimes  observed  in  poultry  from  Shetland ; 
and  the  flesh  of  rabbits  which  feed  on  kelp-manured  ground 
has  a  similar  flavour.  It  is  also  very  noticeable  in  ptarmigan. 
This  flavour  disappears  if  the  fish  diet  be  withheld  for  about 
three  weeks  before  slaughter. 

The  flesh  of  birds  fattened  on  hemp-seed  is  yellow  and  oily. 
When  the  diet  of  pigs  has  been  largely  carnivorous,  the  flavour 
of  the  flesh  is  coarse,  and  the  lard  is  soft. 

Inspection.—  Unless  there  be  a  distinct  rule  bearing  on 
these  cases  in  this  or  that  abattoir,  the  inspector  can  hardly 
interfere  if  the  departure  from  the  normal  be  purely  one  of 
flavour.  If  the  carcase  be  otherwise  of  good  quality,  it  would 
be  difficult  to  justify  its  seizure  on  account  of  slight  alterations 
in  colour  or  odour  which  cannot  be  attributed  to  any  patho- 
logical condition. 

The  Editor  is  of  opinion  that  flesh  which  has  an  abnormal 
and  markedly  distasteful  odour  should  be  considered  unmarket- 
able, because  the  purchaser  is  not  likely  to  discover  it  until 
the  joint  is  served  at  the  table.  It  is  then  too  late  to  return 
it  to  the  butcher. 


POST-MORTEM  CHANGES  IN  FLESH 

DEAD  flesh,  as  every  one  knows,  begins  to  alter  almost  im- 
mediately. In  the  majority  of  slaughtered  animals  in  this 
climate,  the  albumin  of  the  cells  throughout  the  body  has  become 
solid  in  about  twelve  hours.  The  carcase,  however,  may  set, 
to  use  the  popular  expression,  in  less  than  twelve  hours.  The 
after-changes  are  due  to  the  action  of  ferments,  most  of  which 
are  bacterial  in  origin.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  flesh 
becomes  altered  depends  on  the  temperature,  the  character  of 
the  invading  microbes,  and  the  condition  of  the  animal  at  the 
time  of  death.  It  is  well  known  that  a  moderately  high  tem- 
perature is  favourable  to  bacterial  life,  and  that  bacteria  are 
ubiquitous.  One  may  temporarily  arrest  their  growth  by  keep- 
ing the  temperature  at  a  few  degrees  above  freezing-point ;  but 
as  soon  as  the  chilling  process  ceases,  bacterial  life  again  becomes 
active.  If  a  flesh  storehouse  is  not  provided  with  a  means  for 
keeping  the  temperature  low  enough  to  arrest  the  growth  of 
microbes,  the  dust  should  be  laid  with  some  cheap  antiseptic 
fluid,  such  as  a  solution  of  permanganate  of  potash.  Such 
agents  as  chloride  of  lime  and  carbolic  acid  are  unsuitable,  as 
they  may  give  an  odour  to  the  flesh.  The  meat  should  also  be 
protected  from  blue  flies  by  clean  muslin  coverings.  The  mag- 
gots of  these  flies  aid  the  penetration  of  microbes,  and  they  are 
one  means  by  which  germs  are  brought  in  contact  with  the 
flesh.  Meat  which  has  been  improperly  bled  does  not  keep  so 
well  as  that  from  which  most  of  the  blood  has  been  removed. 
The  explanation  seems  to  be  that  when  an  albuminous  fluid 
is  left  in  the  vessels,  microbes  from  the  surface  are  able  to 
spread  more  quickly  into  the  centre  of  the  flesh.  Most  of  the 


POST-MORTEM  CHANGES  IN  FLESH  63 

post-mortem  alterations  in  flesh  come   under  the   head  of 
Putrefaction. 

PUTREFACTION 

Putrefaction  is  a  decomposition  of  organic  substances  caused 
by  microbes.  The  bacteria  of  putrefaction  are  innumerable. 
Indeed,  any  microbe  which  is  able  to  grow  on  dead  meat  may 
help  in  the  putrefactive  process.  The  germs  invade  the  flesh 
from  outside  sources,  or  they  may  penetrate  the  tissues  from 
the  intestines  if  the  latter  are  left  too  long  in  the  body.  The 
influence  of  certain  disease  processes  on  the  keeping  properties 
of  the  flesh  will  frequently  be  referred  to  in  the  chapters  011 
Diseases.  In  t*he  first  stages  of  the  process  the  aerobic  microbes 
grow  most  abundantly ;  but  as  these  use  up  the  oxygen  the 
anaerobes  also  multiply.  In  the  putrefying  material  a  con- 
stant struggle  for  existence  goes  on  between  the  different 
kinds  of  bacteria,  and  some  of  them,  after  a  more  or  less  short 
period  of  existence,  are  crushed  out. 

In  the  decomposition  process,  various  products,  such  as 
leucin,  tyrosin,  butyric  acid,  indol,  scatol,  and  a  host  of  other 
substances,  are  formed  by  reduction  and  chemical  combination. 
Gases,  such  as  0,  H,  and  N,  are  set  free,  while  others— H2S, 
C02,  NH3— are  formed  by  combination.  Many  of  the  products 
are  aromatic,  and  give  off  special  odours.  Some  of  them  are 
poisonous. 

Certain  of  the  bacteria  are  chromogenic  in  character,  that 
is  to  say,  they  give  rise  to  various  coloured  substances  during 
their  growth ;  but  this  function  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
organic  medium  as  well  as  on  the  species  of  microbe.  Others 
render  the  medium  luminous,  but  this  will  be  referred  to  later. 

The  poisonous  products  are  the  ptomaines  or  basic  alkaloids, 
and  the  albumoses  or  toxalbumins. 

Most  of  the  latter,  which  are  perhaps  the  most  poisonous, 
are  destroyed  by  a  temperature  of  150°  F.  Many  of  the  ptom- 
aines remain  active  after  being  heated  to  230°  F.  Those  which 
are  formed  in  the  first  stages  are  not  particularly  poisonous. 


64  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

It  is  unnecessary  to  speak  here  of  the  action  of  these  sub- 
stances on  the  system,  as  this  subject  will  be  dealt  with  in 
the  chapter  on  Food  Poisoning. 

Putrefying  flesh  is  softer  and  more  fluid  than  the  normal. 
Its  colour  varies  from  dark  green  to  black,  the  latter  colour 
being  due  to  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  iron.  It  is  often 
emphysematous  owing  to  gases  liberated  by  the  bacteria,  and 
a  putrefactive  odour  is  given  off.  The  character  of  the  latter 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  aromatic  substances  formed,  and 
that  again  depends  on  the  species  of  the  microbes.  It  is  a  mix- 
ture of  smells,  but  that  of  H2S  often  predominates.  Sometimes 
the  odour  is  sour,  and  that  of  some  well-known  substance,  such 
as  butyric  acid,  may  be  very  evident. 

Inspection.— The  general  custom  is  to  seize  all  putrefying 
flesh.  Its  poisonous  properties  will  be  dealt  with  in  another 
chapter ;  they  are  undeniable. 

The  flesh  of  game  and  deer,  however,  is  often  eaten  when 
in  an  advanced  state  of  decomposition,  and  there  are  some 
individuals  who  like  even  their  mutton  to  be  a  little  high,  to 
use  a  popular  expression. 

The  microbic  products  exercise  a  peptonising  influence 
on  the  tissues,  which  renders  them  tender.  The  aromatic 
substances,  moreover,  give  the  flesh  a  flavour  to  which  many 
individuals  are  partial.  Nevertheless,  it  should  not  be  per- 
missible to  sell  putrefying  flesh  of  any  kind.  The  buyer 
who  prefers  to  eat  rotten  flesh  may  keep  his  purchase  until 
its  condition  is  to  his  taste.  If  any  accident  should  follow, 
the  responsibility  will  then  rest  on  himself.  The  method  of 
labelling  game  or  venison  with  the  date  on  which  the  animals 
were  slaughtered,  too  evidently  lends  itself  to  fraud  to  be 
worth  discussing. 

Thorough  cooking  will  certainly  destroy  the  microbes 
and  the  albumoses,  which  are  their  most  poisonous  products  ; 
but  the  flesh  might  happen  to  be  served  in  a  half -cooked 
condition. 

Every  one  knows,  of  course,  that  the  contents  of  the  posterior 


POST-MORTEM  CHANGES  IN  FLESH  65 

bowel  consist  of  putrefying  organic  material,  which  is  usually 
excreted  before  the  process  has  gone  far  enough  to  produce 
toxic  symptoms.  That,  however,  hardly  justifies  a  wholesale 
introduction  of  microbes  and  their  toxines  into  the  alimentary 
track,  for  we  know  that  colic  follows  when  the  fermentation 
process  is  unduly  activated,  and  that  cases  of  poisoning  have 
arisen  from  the  ingestion  of  putrefying  flesh.  Moreover, 
abnormal  fermentation  processes,  such  as  the  butyric,  may 
be  set  up  in  the  human  stomach  by  the  introduction  of 
special  microbes.  These  processes  give  rise  to  various  forms 
of  dyspepsia.  We  know  also  that  some  pathogenic  bacteria, 
such  as  the  bacillus  of  malignant  oedema,  exist  in  the  intestines 
of  most  animals  without  doing  any  harm.  Nobody,  however, 
would  care  to  swallow  material  which  contained  these  microbes, 
even  supposing  that  the  risk  of  being  infected  by  way  of  the 
alimentary  track  is  not  great. 

PHOSPHORESCENT  MEAT 

Phosphorescent  rays  are  sometimes  given  off  from  dead 
meat,  either  in  the  cooked  or  raw  state.  This  is  observed  in 
dark  chambers,  and  it  depends  on  the  formation  of  phos- 
phorus, which  is  brought  about  by  certain  microbes.  The 
phosphorescence  appears  in  about  forty-eight  hours,  and  it 
lasts  for  about  a  week,  if  the  flesh  does  not  become  putrid. 
As  soon  as  putrefaction  is  established  the  luminous  appearance 
is  lost.  The  best  known  microbes  which  cause  phosphorescence 
in  flesh  are  the  Micrococcus  pflugeri  (Ludwig)  and  the  Photo- 
bacterium  sarcophilum  (Dubois). 

The  first  is  a  micrococcus  which  measures  about  1  //,  in 
diameter.  The  second  is  a  short  bacillus  measuring  from 
1  to  1-5  //,  in  length.  The  luminous  phenomena  are  most  active 
when  the  flesh  is  kept  at  a  temperature  somewhat  below  20°  C. 
It  may  still  be  evident  at  -3°  C.,  or  even  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture, but  it  begins  to  disappear  above  30°  C. 

Inspection.  —  The  bacteria  of  phosphorescence  are  not 
5 


66  MEAT  INSPECTION 

pathogenic ;  indeed,  the  luminous  condition  often  indicates 
that  putrefaction  is  not  advanced.  Under  these  circumstances 
there  is  no  necessity  for  interfering  with  flesh  on  account  of 
this  condition. 

MOULDY  FLESH 

The  surface  of  a  carcase  may  become  covered  by  greyish, 
greenish,  or  black  coloured  moulds.  These  appear  as  a  powdery 
or  downy  layer.  The  flesh,  if  it  be  not  in  the  dried  condition, 
is  usually  putrid. 

Inspection.—  Since  mouldy  flesh  is  usually  putrid  as  well, 
it  should  be  seized.  There  is  not  the  same  necessity,  however, 
for  dealing  rigorously  with  dried  flesh,  such  as  hams,  when 
moulds  are  present  on  the  surface.  Indeed,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  keep  them  quite  free  from  moulds.  The  greater  part  of 
these  surface  growths  can  be  removed  by  scraping,  and  the 
cooking  process  destroys  what  remains  on  the  surface. 


INFLAMMATORY  DISEASES 

THE  diseases  consigned  to  this  chapter  are  those  which  are 
generally  referred  to  as  sporadic  inflammation  by  clinicians. 
Many  of  them  are  believed  to  be  caused  by  saprophytic  microbes, 
which  have  managed  to  gain  a  footing  in  an  organism  whose 
natural  resistance  has  been  weakened  by  disease.  Some  are 
caused  by  animal  parasites,  which  may  be  assisted  in  their 
action  by  microbes ;  while  others  are  due  to  the  effects  of 
mechanical  or  chemical  irritants.  Inflammation  of  a  septic 
or  putrid  type  is  due  to  the  microbes  of  suppuration  or  putre- 
faction gaining  access  to  an  inflamed  or  abraded  tissue. 

The  inflammatory  condition  is  characterised  by  vascular 
congestion  and  the  appearance  in  the  tissues  of  material 
exuded  from  the  vessels.  The  exudate  contains  a  great 
many  leucocytes,  a  variable  amount  of  fibrine,  and  sometimes 
a  considerable  number  of  red  cells.  When  the  disturbance 
is  located  in  a  mucous  membrane— catarrhal  inflammation— 
the  exudate  contains  epithelial  cells. 

If  the  cause  be  a  specific  one,  which  acts  on  several  organs 
at  the  same  time,  or  in  a  progressive  manner,  the  affection 
usually  receives  a  special  name— tuberculosis,  for  example. 
When  the  inflammatory  changes  are  confined  to  an  organ  or 
to  contiguous  organs,  such  as  the  lungs  and  pleura,  they  receive 
names  which  signify  that  the  organ  is  inflamed—  pleuritis, 
for  example.  If  a  simple  inflammation  become  septic,  however, 
metastatic  lesions  may  be  found  in  remote  organs.  The  specific- 
diseases  will  be  described  in  special  sections;  mammitis  and 
septic  metritis  have  been  classed  with  them.  The  others,  which 
are  of  interest  to  the  Meat  Inspector,  will  be  dealt  with  here. 

67 


68  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

PNEUMONIA 

This  term  is  applied  to  inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

Lesions.— Two  forms  of  pneumonia  are  met  with— Bronclio- 
Piieumonia  and  Lobar  Pneumonia. 

In  broncho-pneumonia  the  inflammation  is  of  the  eatarrhal 
type.  The  vast  majority  of  the  cases  met  with  in  the  animals 
of  the  abattoir  are  due  to  Strongyli  (see  HOOSE).  The  lesions 
seldom  cause  alteration  in  the  flesh. 

In  lobar  pneumonia  the  lung  tissue  over  a  large  area 
is  solid,  airless,  and  sinks  when  put  into  water.  The  pleura 
may  also  be  inflamed.  The  consistence  of  the  lung  approaches 
that  of  the  liver,  hence  it  is  said  to  be  hepatised. 

On  section,  the  surface  of  the  solid  part  is  of  a  dirty  grey 
and  red  colour.  It  has  a  distant  resemblance  to  a  piece  of 
unpolished  red  granite.  At  a  later  stage,  when  softening  of 
the  exudate  is  taking  place,  the  grey  colour  is  more  marked, 
and  a  thin  pus-like  fluid  exudes  from  the  cut  surface. 

The  microscope  shows  that  the  consolidation  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  an  exudate  in  the  alveoli.  The  walls  of  the  latter 
are  swollen  and  infiltrated  by  cells.  The  exudate  consists 
mainly  of  leucocytes,  a  small  amount  of  fibrine,  and  a  variable 
number  of  red  corpuscles.  i .,; 

Gangrene  may  supervene  011  pneumonia,  or  the  changes 
may  be  of  a  septic  type  from  the  first  (see  GANGRENE  and 
SEPTIC  METEITIS). 

PLEURISY. 

The  terms  pleurisy  and  pleuritis  indicate  that  the  pleura  is 
inflamed. 

The  extent  of  the  lesion  may  be  limited  to  a  small  patch 
corresponding  to  the  surface  of  an  abscess  in  the  lungs,  the 
diaphragm,  or  a  lymphatic  gland.  It  may  correspond  to  an 
area  of  pneumonia,  or  it  may  extend  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  pleura  on  each  side,  while  the  lungs  are  little  altered. 

In  the  initial  stage  the  membrane  is  congested  in  certain 


I  NFL  AM  MA  TOR  Y  DISEASES  69 

parts.  It  soon  becomes  swollen,  grey,  and  opaque,  however, 
owing  to  the  appearance  of  a  fibrinous  exudate  in  its  substance 
and  on  its  surface.  A  turbid  and  albuminous  fluid  contain- 
ing many  white  cells  is  present  in  the  chest  cavity,  but  the 
amount  is  variable,  and  may  be  almost  imperceptible. 

The  exudate  011  the  surface  coagulates  and  forms  a  false 
membrane,  which  may  establish  a  temporary  adhesion  between 
two  parts  of  the  pleura.  If  the  disease  has  become  chronic, 
permanent  adhesions  are  formed  by  proliferation  of  the  fibrous 
tissue  in  the  two  surfaces. 

After  rupture  of  the  oesophagus  or  penetration  of  a  foreign 
body  from  the  second  stomach  in  cattle,  a  putrid  form  of  pleurisy 
is  often  present.  The  exudate  in  this  case  is  usually  dry  and 
cheese-like,  and  it  gives  off  a  putrid  odour  (see  STIPPITRATTVE 
DISEASES,  and  EUPTURE  OF  THE  (ESOPHAGUS). 


PERITONITIS 

Peritonitis  is  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  traumatic  cases  and  the  tuberculous  forms, 
it  mostly  occurs  in  cattle  and  sheep  as  the  result  of  extension 
of  an  inflammatory  process  from  the  uterus,  and  it  is  of  the 
septic  type.  The  latter,  however,  may  also  arise  from  perfora- 
tion of  the  bowel  or  bladder. 

Lesions.— The  changes  consequent  upon  peritonitis  are 
analogous  to  those  of  pleurisy.  The  septic  form  will  be 
described  later  (see  SEPTIC  METRITIS). 


PERICARDITIS 

Inflammation  of  the  pericardium  in  animals  of  the  abattoir 
arises  almost  always  from  traumatism,  or  as  a  complication  of 
another  disease. 

Lesions.^- Thev  are  similar  to  those  seen  in  other  serous 


70  MEAT  INSPECTION 

membranes.  In  cattle  the  commonest  cause  is  the  penetration 
of  a  foreign  body  from  the  second  stomach  (see  SUPPURATION 
IN  THE  HEART).  The  heart  wall  is  usually  implicated  to  some 
extent — Myocarditis. 

ENDOCARDITIS 

Inflammation  of  the  internal  lining  of  the  heart  is  most 
frequently  seen  in  pigs.  It  is  referred  to  in  the  section  on 
Swine  Erysipelas.  In  sheep  and  oxen  the  lesion  is  very 
rare. 

Nodular  vegetations  are  found  on  the  valves,  and  the  cusps 
are  distorted. 


NEPHRITIS 

Nephritis  means  inflammation  of  the  kidney.  It  may 
appear  as  a  complication  of  certain  infectious  diseases,  such  as 
swine  fever ;  but  it  may  also  arise  independently  from  the 
penetration  of  microbes  to  the  kidney  by  way  of  the  urino- 
genital  track,  or  from  the  administration  in  poisonous  doses  of 
irritant  drugs,  such  as  turpentine,  which  are  excreted  by  the 
kidneys. 

Lesions.— The  changes  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic  in 
type.  They  may  be  confined  principally  to  the  lining  of  the 
tubules  —  Catarrhal  or  Tubal  Nephritis  —  or  they  may  be 
located  in  the  intertubal  tissue— Interstitial  Nephritis. 

Acute  tubal  nephritis  is  seldom  seen  in  the  abattoir,  but 
the  acute  interstitial  form  is  by  no  means  rare  in  pigs,  and  a 
good  many  chronic  cases  are  met  with  in  cows. 

In  the  acute  forms  the  kidney  is  congested.  The  Mal- 
pighian  bodies  are  prominent,  the  surface  of  section  is  mottled, 
and  the  consistence  of  the  tissue  is  sometimes  pulpy. 

In  the  chronic  forms  the  capsule  is  often  adherent;  the 
organ  is  paler,  harder,  and  sometimes  smaller  than  normal, 
owing  to  contraction  of  new  tissue.  The  surface  may  be 


INFLAMMA  TOR  Y  DISEASES  7 1 

irregular.  Large  haemorrhages  may  be  found  in  the  substance 
of  the  organ.  In  the  tubal  variety  the  microscope  shows  that 
the  epithelial  cells  are  desquamating,  and  a  catarrhal  exudate, 
mixed  with  leucocytes,  red  blood  cells,  and  albumin,  is  present 
in  the  tubules.  Some  of  the  lining  cells  are  cloudy,  or  fatty. 

In  the  acute  interstitial  form  the  intertubal  tissue  is  in- 
filtrated by  leucocytes,  and  in  chronic  cases  a  considerable 
amount  of  new  fibrous  tissue  is  formed.  The  latter  obliterates 
many  of  the  tubules  and  vessels. 

If  a  tubule  be  blocked  by  exudate  or  new  tissue,  its  proximal 
part  may  become  dilated  into  a  cyst  by  the  accumulation  of 
urine.  Should  the  ureter  become  occluded,  the  whole  kidney 
may  become  cystic ;  that  is  to  say,  the  kidney  substance  under- 
goes atrophy  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  accumulated  fluid. 


OSTEITIS 

Osteitis  is  inflammation  of  bone.  It  is  usually  accom- 
panied by  periostitis,  and  masses  of  new  bone  may  be  formed. 
The  affection  runs  a  chronic  course,  and  the  muscles  around 
the  bone  may  be  implicated.  The  muscles  in  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  may  show  lesions  of  chronic  myositis. 
The  results  of  suppurative  osteitis  are  referred  to  under 
SUPPURATION. 


Inspection  in  the  case  of  Inflammatory  Diseases 

Acute  inflammatory  diseases  are  always  accompanied  by 
elevation  of  the  temperature,  so  that  the  carcase  may  have  to 
be  condemned  on  account  of  the  fevered  condition  of  the  flesh. 
In  chronic  cases  the  flesh  may  be  of  good  appearance,  but  the 
affected  parts  should  all  be  removed  before  the  carcase  is 
allowed  into  the  market.  It  may  even  be  necessary  to  strip 
off  the  pleura.  When  the  inflammation  has  been  septic  in 
character,  the  flesh  is  usually  of  bad  appearance  if  the  affected 


7  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

area  is  at  all  extensive.  It  is  dark  in  colour,  flaccid,  soapy  to 
the  touch,  and,  in  addition,  is  apt  to  putrefy  rapidly.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  carcase  should  be  seized. 

In  cases  of  chronic  endocarditis  and  nephritis  the  whole 
carcase  may  be  dropsical,  but  one  is  sometimes  surprised  to 
find  how  extensively  diseased  these  organs  may  be  without 
the  production  of  alterations  in  the  flesh. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD 

FOR  want  of  the  necessary  information  for  forming  a  more 
correct  classification,  certain  pathological  conditions  have 
been  classed  as  diseases  of  the  blood.  It  must  be  understood, 
however,  that  the  alterations  in  the  blood  arise  from  ill-under- 
stood, though  sometimes  perfectly  apparent,  changes  in  im- 
portant organs. 

ANEMIA 

This  term  in  its  widest  sense  means  deficiency  in  any  con- 
stituent of  the  blood,  but  it  has  come  to  have  a  more  restricted 
meaning.  One  generally  understands  by  anaemia  that  the 
red  cells  are  below  the  normal  number  —  Oligocythcemia, 
or  that  the  haemoglobin  is  deficient.  These  conditions  can 
only  be  diagnosed  with  certainty  by  examining  the  blood  of 
an  animal  during  life,  or  while  it  is  being  bled.  The  haema- 
cytometer  is  necessary  for  counting  the  red  blood  corpuscles,1 
and  the  haemoglobinometer  for  estimating  the  haemoglobin. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  for  the  inspector  to  make  such 
minute  observations  on  the  blood,  however,  as  he  is  only  con- 
cerned when  the  flesh  is  altered.  The  severe  or  pernicious 
form  of  anaemia  in  animals  is  caused  only  by  blood  parasites 
(see  PROTOZOA)  ;  but  a  milder  variety,  which  corresponds  to 

1  The  Editor  lias  made  a  considerable  number  of  observations  on  the  blood 
of  apparently  healthy  cattle  and  sheep,  and  he  finds  that  the  average  number 
of  red  cells  per  cubic  millimetre  is  six  millions  in  cattle  and  nine  and  a  half 
millions  in  sheep.  The  haemoglobin  of  bovine  animals  averages  68  per  cent, 
(lowest  55  per  cent.)  on  Von  Fleischl's  scale,  and  that  of  sheep  58  per  cent. 
(lowest  52  per  cent.). 

73 


7  4  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

chlorosis  of  human  pathologists,  is  met  with  as  the  result  of 
some  chronic  diseased  condition. 

The  flesh  of  truly  anaemic  animals  is  paler  than  normal, 
flabby,  watery,  and  emaciated.  Small  punctiform  haemor- 
rhages are  sometimes  present  in  the  muscles  and  on  the  serous 
membranes.  The  cachectic  condition  produced  by  certain 
parasites,  such  as  the  liver  fluke,  is  usually  put  down  to  anaemia ; 
but  there  are  no  observations  sufficiently  definite  to  show 
that  this  view  is  pathologically  correct.  In  cases  of  this  kind, 
however,  the  exact  pathological  condition  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance to  the  Meat  Inspector ;  for  he  should  seize  emaciated 
and  watery  carcases  whether  the  cause  be  anaemia  or  not. 

LEUCOCYTILEMIA 

This  is  a  disease  in  which  the  white  cells  of  the  blood  are 
permanently  increased  in  number,  the  increase  being  accom- 
panied by  enlargement  of  the  lymphatic  glands  or  the  spleen, 
and  by  alteration  in  the  bone  marrow.  All  these  organs  may 
be  simultaneously  altered.1 

In  some  of  the  bacterial  diseases  which  run  a  chronic  course, 
and  in  pregnant  females,  the  leucocytes  are  slightly  increased 
in  number,  but  the  glands  throughout  the  body  are  not  en- 
larged. The  cause  of  leucocythaemia  is  still  unknown,  but 
there  is  a  tendency  to  regard  it  as  a  bacterial  disease. 

Animals  affected.—  Leucocythaemia  is  rarely  seen  in  the 
animals  used  for  human  food,  although,  according  to  the 
Editor's  experience,  it  is  not  a  very  rare  disease  in  dogs.  Only 
one  or  two  cases  have  been  described  in  cows  and  pigs.  Human 
beings  sometimes  suffer  from  this  disease. 

Lesions.— Changes  may  be  present  in  the  bone  marrow, 
the  spleen,  the  lymph  glands,  and  the  organs.  The  marrow 

1  Pseudoleuksemia  is  a  condition  in  which  the  lymph  glands  are  enlarged 
without  any  marked  increase  in  the  number  of  white  corpuscles.  So  far  as  the 
Editor  is  aware,  this  disease  has  not  been  observed  in  the  animals  of  the 
abattoir. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  75 

is  regarded  as  the  most  constant  site  of  lesions.  Clinicians 
speak  of  a  myelogenous  form  in  which  the  abnormalities  are  seen 
mainly  in  the  marrow,  a  lymphatic  form  in  which  the  lymph 
glands  are  the  principal  organs  diseased,  and  a  splenic  variety 
in  which  the  spleen  is  enlarged.  Combinations  of  the  fore- 
going are  also  recognised.  Thus  we  hear  of  Lymphatico-splenic 
and  Spleno-medullary  leucocythcemia.  These  are  all  mani- 
festations of  the  same  disease,  the  blood-forming  organs  being 
the  seat  of  disturbance.  The  flesh  is  very  pale  in  colour,  and 
it  may  show  haemorrhages. 

Blood.— The  blood  is  lighter  in  colour  than  normal;  in 
very  bad  cases  it  looks  like  a  mixture  of  blood  and  pus.  White 
clots  are  present  in  the  heart.  The  blood  gives  off  a  peculiar 
sickly  odour.  It  coagulates  slowly,  and  the  buffy  coat  is  very 
distinct.  On  examining  the  blood  under  the  microscope,  the 
white  cells  are  found  to  be  more  numerous  than  normal,  and 
the  octahedral  crystals  of  Charcot  and  Leyden  appear.  If 
the  white  cells  be  counted  during  the  life  of  the  animal,1  it 
will  be  found  that  they  are  increased  absolutely  and  relatively 
to  the  red  corpuscles.  The  proportion  of.  white  to  red  in 
leucocythsemia  may  be  as  high  as  1  to  12. 

Lymphatic  glands.— The  glands  throughout  the  body 
are  enlarged,  it  may  be  to  three  or  four  times  the  normal  size. 
Small  groups  of  glands,  which  usually  pass  unnoticed,  stand  out 
prominently.  On  section,  their  substance  has  the  consistence 
of  brain  tissue,  and  a  creamy  fluid  exudes  from  the  surface. 

The  microscope  shows  the  glands  to  be  packed  with  lympho- 
cytes. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  may  be  enlarged  to  several  times 
the  normal.  In  a  case  observed  by  the  Editor  in  a  horse,  the 
spleen  weighed  nearly  80  Ib.  The  capsule  is  much  thickened. 

1  A  special  hsemacytometer  pipette  is  necessary  for  this  operation.  The 
number  of  white  cells  in  the  blood  of  a  healthy  animal  varies  according  to  the 
time  of  day  at  which  the  examination  is  made.  The  Editor  has  seldom  found 
them  to  exceed  12,000  per  cubic  millimetre  in  the  ox  or  sheep.  The  proportion 
of  white  to  red  is  1  to  900  or  1  to  1100. 


7  6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

On  section,  the  consistence  is  pulpy,  and  the  colour  is  that  of 
crushed  strawberry.  In  some  cases  the  Malpighian  bodies 
stand  out  prominently  like  large  grains  of  sago,  but  in  others 
they  do  not  appear  to  be  altered. 

The  microscope  shows  that  the  non-striped  muscle  cells  in 
the  capsule  and  trabeculae  are  increased  in  number.  The 
substance  of  the  organ  is  densely  infiltrated  with  leucocytes. 
When  the  Malpighian  bodies  are  enlarged  they  are  found 
to  be  similarly  infiltrated,  and  they  may  merge  into  each 
other. 

There  is  110  likelihood  of  this  lesion  being  mistaken  for 
anthrax.  The  absence  of  the  tarry  appearance  of  the  pulp, 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  anthrax  spleen,  is  of  itself  a 
sufficient  distinction. 

Bone  marrow.  — If  a  long  bone  be  split  longitudinally, 
the  red  marrow  appears  of  the  same  colour  as  the  blood.  Cover- 
glass  preparations  show  that  the  white  cells  are  exceedingly 
numerous,  and  many  nucleated  red  cells  may  be  seen. 

The  other  internal  organs  may  show  no  macroscopic  change, 
but  the  microscope  often  reveals  the  presence  of  many  small 
collections  of  leucocytes  in  their  substance.  These  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  small  abscesses  or  miliary  tubercles ; 
probably  they  are  bacterial  in  origin.  In  the  liver  the  capil- 
laries may  be  so  dilated  that  they  can  be  seen  with  the  naked 
eye  as  light  red  streaks. 

Inspection.— In  most  cases  the  condition  of  the  flesh  and 
the  contained  glands  would  warrant  the  withdrawal  of  the 
carcase  from  the  market.  If  it  be  true  that  leucocythaemia 
is  a  bacterial  disease,  the  microbes  must  travel  all  over  the 
body,  because  lesions  of  a  kind  are  found  in  most  of  the  organs. 
Keeping  in  mind  the  fact  that  human  beings  suffer  from  the 
disease,  the  Editor  is  of  opinion  that  total  seizure  should  be 
applied  in  all  cases,  whatever  be  the  condition  of  the  flesh. 
It  is  but  right  to  state,  however,  that  attempts  to  confer  the 
disease  to  animals  by  experimental  methods  have  failed,  or 
given  only  doubtful  results. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  77 

RED  WATER 

The  term  is  applied  in  this  country  to  a  disease  of  cattle 
which  is  characterised  by  disintegration  of  the  red  blood  cells 
and  the  appearance  of  altered  blood  pigment  in  the  urine.  In 
other  parts  of  the  world  the  term  haemoglobinuria  is  employed 
to  designate  certain  diseases  in  which  the  same  symptom  occurs, 
and  which  are  caused  by  animal  parasites  or  bacteria  invading 
the  blood  (sec  PROTOZOA).  Neither  parasites  nor  bacteria  have 
been  shown  to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease  in  this  country ;  but 
the  pathology  of  the  affection  has  received  very  little  atten- 
tion. Cases  occur  sporadically  in  this  country,  and  are  only 
seen  in  certain  districts. 

Lesions.—  The  lesions  consist  of  congestion  of  the  internal 
organs,  especially  the  liver.  That  organ  may  also  show  small 
patches  of  necrosis  on  microscopic  examination.  The  tubules 
of  the  kidney  contain  a  brownish  granular  pigment.  The  urine 
contained  in  the  bladder  is  highly  coloured  and  albuminous. 
The  tissues  are  often  stained  with  bile  pigment ;  this  is 
particularly  well  seen  in  the  fat.  The  flesh  is  pale,  and  has 
a  macerated  appearance.  Certain  regions  show  signs  of 
iiitermuscular  haemorrhages,  and  some  of  the  muscle  fibres 
of  the  hind  quarters  are  in  a  state  of  hyalin  degeneration. 
Anaemia  sometimes  follows  in  animals  which  have  survived 
an  acute  attack.  Then  the  flesh  is  flabby,  pale,  and  watery. 

Inspection.— It  is  seldom  that  animals  affected  with  red 
water  come  into  the  abattoir,  but  their  carcases  might  be  sent 
in  after  slaughter.  Those  showing  the  above-mentioned  altera- 
tions in  the  flesh  should  certainly  be  excluded  from  the  market. 

URTICARIA 

Urticaria,  or  iiettlerash,  is  characterised  by  the  appearance 
of  blood-tinged  fluid  in  certain  areas  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue. 
This  gives  rise  to  patches  of  discoloration  on  tlie  skin.  The 
pig  is  the  principal  sufferer  from  nettlerash.  It  sometimes 


78  MEAT  INSPECTION 

attacks  several  animals  at  the  same  time,  and  by  some  author- 
ities it  is  looked  upon  as  a  contagious  affection.  Jensen  has 
shown  that  some  cases  of  so-called  urticaria  are  really  swine 
erysipelas  in  a  mild  form  (see  SWINE  ERYSIPELAS). 

It  is  unlikely,  however,  that  the  cases  observed  in  this 
country  are  caused  by  the  bacillus  of  swine  erysipelas,  as 
that  disease  is  not  common.  Possibly  the  skin  lesions  are 
due  to  bacterial  products,  as  the  disease  often  occurs  after 
ingestion  of  fermenting  foods. 

Lesions.— lled-coloured  patches  are  seen  on  the  skin,  particu- 
larly in  the  region  of  the  shoulder,  abdomen,  back,  and  hips. 
They  are  irregularly  circular  in  shape,  and  measure  from  a 
fourth  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  breadth.  Sometimes  patches 
of  several  inches  extent  are  formed  by  confluence.  At  first 
they  are  bright  red  in  colour,  but  they  soon  become  livid.  In 
some  cases  pustules  form  on  the  discoloured  patch. 

Inspection.—  The  lesions  are  usually  quite  superficial,  and 
do  not  interfere  with  the  appearance  of  the  underlying  tissues. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  carcase  of  the  pig 
is  not  skinned.  The  scalding  and  scraping  of  the  dressing 
process  do  not  remove  the  blemishes,  so  that  large  patches  of 
discoloration  may  spoil  the  marketable  qualities  of  certain 
parts  of  the  carcase. 

Pigs  showing  lesions  of  urticaria  should  not  be  slaughtered 
for  a  few  days.  After  this  lapse  of  time  the  eruption  will 
have  disappeared. 

The  Editor  has  several  times  met  with  pigs'  carcases  show- 
ing multiple  haemorrhages  in  the  subcutaneous  fat,  which 
rendered  them  quite  unmarketable.  These  were  more  like 
the  lesions  of  purpura  hsemorrhagica  than  those  of  nettlerash. 


BACTEKIAL  DISEASES 

ALTHOUGH  several  of  the  bacterial  diseases  are  common  to 
man  and  animals,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  are  likely  to 
be  transmitted  to  human  beings  through  the  medium  of 
butcher  meat. 

In  a  book  on  "  Meat  Inspection,"  the  most  suitable  arrange- 
ment of  the  bacterial  affections  would  be  to  divide  them  into 
two  classes,  viz.  those  which  are  transmissible  from  animals 
to  man,  and  those  which  are  not.  Unfortunately,  this 
classification,  is  not  possible,  because  it  sometimes  happens  that 
the  name  of  a  disease  of  human,  beings  has  been  applied  to 
one,  or  maybe  more  than  one,  totally  different  affection  in 
animals. 

The  Editor,  after  many  unsuccessful  attempts,  has  had  to 
abandon  the  idea  of  such  an  arrangement.  The  reader  will 
observe  that  in  the  following  pages  the  bacterial  diseases 
first  described  are  those  which  are  characterised  by  actual 
lesions,  and  that  those  caused  by  moulds  have  been  included. 
The  specific  bacteria  of  some  of  the  affections  have  not  as 
yet  been  isolated,  but  nobody  doubts  that  the  diseases  are 
bacterial  in  origin. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculosis  is  a  contagious  disease  caused  by  the  growth 
of  the  tubercle  bacillus  in  the  tissues. 

Since  1882,  when  the  tubercle  bacillus  was  isolated  from 
the  lesions  by  Koch,  and  shown  by  him  to  be  the  cause  of  tuber- 
culosis, the  disease  has  been  the  subject  of  many  valuable  papers 
and  a  great  deal  of  controversy.  The  identity  of  the  disease  in 

79 


8o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

human  beings  and  animals,  and  the  possibility  of  the  one  infect- 
ing the  other,  render  of  the  first  importance  those  points  in  the 
pathology  of  tuberculosis  which  concern  the  Meat  Inspector. 
It  is  not  advisable  in  a  volume  of  this  kind  to  report  the  many 
sharp  and  lengthy  discussions  from  which  have  emanated  our 
present  ideas  regarding  the  duties  of  a  Meat  Inspector  when 
dealing  with  a  tuberculous  carcase.  The  object  will  be  rather 
to  state  and  explain  these  ideas,  avoiding  controversial  subjects 
so  far  as  one  may  in  a  treatise  on  meat  inspection. 

Animals  affected.— Although  some  species  and  certain 
individuals  of  the  same  species  are  undoubtedly  less  susceptible 
to  the  disease  than  others,  none  possess  an  absolute  immunity. 
In  judging  the  relative  susceptibility  of  different  individuals  or 
races  to  tuberculosis,  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  how  much  of 
this  is  due  to  inherent  or  acquired  conditions  of  the  system,  and 
how  far  opportunity  of  contracting  the  disease  is  responsible 
for  the  so-called  predisposition.  By  far  the  greatest  factor  in 
the  spread  of  tuberculosis  is  certainly  the  relative  frequency  of 
the  tubercle  bacillus  in  close  proximity  to  animals. 

Without  the  bacillus  tuberculosis  the  disease  cannot  be  con- 
tracted even  by  the  most  weakly  animals ;  but  given  its  presence 
in  a  dwelling  or  in  the  body  of  a  companion,  the  strongest  is 
not  absolutely  free  from  the  danger  of  infection.  The  disease 
is  most  frequent  in  our  more  domesticated  races  of  cattle,  but 
it  spreads,  though  with  less  rapidity,  in  those  living  in  a  more 
natural  state  of  existence,  if  the  bacillus  once  gains  a  footing  on 
some  member  of  the  herd. 

If  one  may  judge  from  the  frequency  of  occurrence,  the 
human  species  must  be  placed  in  the  first  rank  of  susceptibility. 

Of  the  domesticated  animals  the  disease  is  most  prevalent  in 
cattle.  Cows  are  much  more  frequently  its  victims  than  oxen, 
but  that  is  to  be  attributed  largely  to  the  hygienic  conditions 
under  which  the  former  live,  and  to  the  fact  that  their 
term  of  life  is  usually  longer.  Calves  are  seldom  found  to  be 
tuberculous  at  the  age  when  they  enter  the  abattoir.  The 
disease  is  still  more  infrequent  before  that  age,  notwithstanding 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  81 

the  fact  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  cows  are  affected.  Con- 
genital tuberculosis  in  the  calf  is  rare,  rarer  even  than  tubercle 
of  the  uterus  in  the  cow,  on  which  it  may  be  safely  assumed 
to  depend.  The  truth  is  that  few  of  the  abattoir  calves 
have  had  time  to  be  infected  since  they  saw  the  light  of  day, 
and  that  the  custom  which  exists  in  many  parts,  of  removing 
them  almost  immediately  from  their  mothers,  renders  the  chance 
of  infection  very  small.  Sufficiently  representative  statistics 
to  convince  one  of  the  rarity  of  tuberculosis  in  calves  will  be 
found  below.  They  are  an  insurmountable  argument  against 
the  theory  of  hereditary  transmission  of  tuberculosis.  There 
are  others  equally  strong,  but  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss 
them  here. 

Next  to  the  ox  in  point  of  frequency  comes  the  pig,  but  the 
proportion,  of  pigs  found  in  the  abattoirs  to  be  tuberculous  is 
far  inferior  to  that  of  cattle. 

Tuberculosis  in  the  sheep  and  goat  is  very  rare  in  this  country, 
so  rare  that  the  number  affected  is  negligible. 

In  the  birds  of  our  farms  and  covers,  tuberculosis  is  by  no 
means  uncommon.  Indeed,  the  disease  is  very  prevalent,  and 
on  some  hen-runs  its  ravages  amount  almost  to  a  holocaust. 

The  following  statistics  from  abattoirs  in  different  parts  of 
the  world  give  some  idea  of  the  prevalence  of  tuberculosis  in 
the  different  animals  used  for  human  food. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that  such  abattoir  statistics 
as  are  available  in  this  country  give  a  very  inadequate  idea  of 
the  number  of  tuberculous  cattle.  The  rules  relating  to  the 
passing  of  the  carcases  of  tuberculous  animals  are  more  stringent 
in  some  places  than  in  others,  and  in  a  great  number  of  towns 
there  is  practically  no  inspection.  This  is  especially  the  case 
where  private  slaughter-houses  exist. 

It  is  to  the  less  inspected  abattoirs  that  many  of  the  sus- 
pected animals  are  purposely  sent,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  concerned  have  themselves  to  blame  for  any  evil  conse- 
quences if  they  do  not  compel  their  city  fathers  to  afford  them 
protection  by  providing  adequately  qualified  Meat  Inspectors. 
6 


82 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


In  Edinburgh,  for  example,  where  the  inspection  is  adequate, 
about  one  hundred  cows  are  sent  out  weekly  from  the  byres  to 
be  sold  in  the  market,  and  although  all  are  meant  for  slaughter, 
less  than  one-fourth  of  them  find  their  way  to  the  city  abattoir. 
The  others  are  sent  away,  a  goodly  number  to  certain  places 
where  the  inspection  is  notoriously  inadequate. 


STATISTICS  FROM  ABATTOIRS. 

Mr.  Eiddoch,  M.R.C.Y.S.,  Chief  Veterinary  Inspector,  has 
kindly  furnished  the  Editor  with  the  following  statistics  of 
animals  condemned  for  tuberculosis  in  the  Edinburgh  abattoir 
during  the  years  from  1893-97  :  — 


Year. 

Kind  of  Animal. 

Total  Number 
Slaughtered. 

Condemned 
for 
Tuberculosis. 

Per  cent. 

1893 

Cattle  (exclusive  of  cows) 

28,261 

•046 

5  5 

Swine     .         . 

3,809 

•026 

3? 

Calves    .... 

6,852 

— 

1894 

Cattle  (exclusive  of  cows) 

28,976 

•034 

5  j 

Swine     .... 

5,335 

•075 

33 

Calves    .... 

7,061 

— 

1895 

Cattle  (exclusive  of  cows) 

30,137 

•046 

3  j 

Swine     .... 

6,248 

•224 

Calves    .... 

6,923 

1896 

Cattle  (exclusive  of  cows) 

30,161 

•073 

Swine     .... 

7,295 

•150 

D 

Calves    . 

6,224 

— 

1897 

Cattle     .... 

29,125 

•410 

Cows      .... 

2,162 

4718 

3  > 

Calves    . 

5,756 

•017 

J3 

Swine     .... 

7,458 

•040 

1898  l 

Cattle     .... 

30,722 

•023 

Cows       .... 

1,936 

6-404 

j  $ 

Calves    .... 

5,371 

•037 

?> 

Swine     .... 

6,218 

•064 

Taken  from  report  of  the  Chief  Sanitary  Inspector. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  83 

Through,  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Williamson,  Chief  Sanitary 
Inspector,  the  Editor  has  been  allowed  to  prepare  the  following 
statistics  from  the  books  of  the  Edinburgh  abattoir.  They 
deal  with  the  cases  of  tuberculosis  in  bovine  animals  observed 
during  the  year  ending  November  1899. 

Out  of  1312  cows  slaughtered,  129  were  condemned  on 
account  of  tuberculosis  (i.e.  9  •  5  per  cent.).  About  2  per  cent, 
of  the  tuberculous  cows  are  passed  for  food.  This  would  bring 
the  total  number  of  affected  cows  up  to,  say  150,  or  11-4  per 
cent.1 

Tuberculous  lesions  were  found  in  the  udder  in  23-3  per 
cent,  of  the  tuberculous  cows.2 

From  these  numbers  it  would  appear  that  the  proportion 
of  dairy  cows  with  tuberculous  udders  is  2  •  6  per  cent,  (total 
number  examined,  1312).  The  Editor  thinks,  however,  that 
2-6  per  cent,  is  in  excess  of  the  truth— first,  because  the 
veterinary  inspectors  are  very  strict  in  dealing  with  suspicious 
cases  of  udder  disease  in  the  city  byres ;  and,  secondly,  because 
most  of  these  cases  find  their  way  to  the  city  abattoir,  as  nobody 
will  buy  them  in  the  market,  owing  to  the  apparent  disease 
of  the  udder  and  their  want  of  condition.  A  good  number 
of  the  other  cows  sold  in  the  market  go  to  towns  where  in- 
spection of  meat  is  less  strictly  performed.  Many  of  these 
are  affected  with  the  disease,  although  their  udders  are  healthy. 
If  they  were  all  slaughtered  in  Edinburgh  the  proportion  of 
tuberculous  udders  in  tuberculous  cows  would  be  less.  The 
proportion  of  tuberculous  COWTS  with  uterine  lesions  was  3-3 
per  cent.,  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  only  one  case  of 
congenital  tuberculosis  has  been  observed  during  the  last  five 
years.  The  average  number  of  calves  slaughtered  is  about 
6000  yearly.  The  subjoined  table  shows  the~distribution  of 

l.~No  record  is  kept  of  the  tuberculous  carcases  passed,  but,  judging  from 
experience,  the  above  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  number  of  cows.  Of  course  the 
proportion  of  tuberculous  carcases  of  the  young  beasts  passed  will  be  higher. 

2  Most  of  the  doubtful  cases  were  referred  to  the  Editor,  who  submitted  the 
udders  to  a  microscopical  examination  before  pronouncing  on  the  nature  of  the 
lesion. 


84  MEAT  INSPECTION 

the  tuberculous  lesions  in  the  various  organs  of  bovine  animals ; 
95-2  per  cent,  of  the  cases  were  met  with  in  cows  :  — 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 


Lung   .         .         .         .      ,  .  93'4 

Pleura.         .         .         ...  80 '0 

Bowel  and  mesenteric  glands l  65  '6 

Peritoneum  .         .         .         .  61 '3 

Liver    .         .         .         i         .  54'0 

Udder  of  cows  .  23 '3 


Spleen  capsule  .  "    .  .    21 '1 

Pericardium.  .  .  .      5 -8 

Kidney          .  .'  .  ,  .      5-1 

Uterus  of  cows  .  .  .      3'3 

Bones   .        .  ,  .  .1-4 

Ovary  of  cows  .  .  '  .      1  '5 


1  Ulcers  were  found  on  bowel  in  2'1  per  cent,  of  these. 

The  proportion  of  acute  miliary  cases  was  6  •  5  per  cent,  of 
the  tuberculous.  It  is  interesting  to  note  this,  because  such 
a  small  proportion,  relatively  to  the  number  of  udder  cases, 
makes  it  difficult  to  believe  that  the  mammary  gland  is  in- 
vaded only  by  way  of  the  blood  stream. 

The  microbe.— The  microbe  is  a  rod-shaped  bacillus,  measur- 
ing commonly  about  3-5  //,  x  -3.  The  rods  are  either  straight 
or  curved,  and  they  are  rounded  at  their  ends.  When  stained 
they  often  show  a  number  of  clear  refractile  spaces  in  their 
protoplasm.  They  are  found  among  the  cells  of  the  tubercle 
or  inside  the  giant  cells.  Some  of  them  occur  singly,  others 
are  arranged  in  clumps  or  rosette  form.  They  can  be  stained 
well  by  the  Ziehl-Neelson  method  or  by  that  of  Erlich.  Gram's 
method  is  also  suitable.  It  is  worth  while  noting  that  the 
bacilli  are  sometimes  present  in  very  small  numbers  in  the 
lesion.  It  may  be  necessary  to  mince  up  a  nodule  on  a  slide 
or  cut  sections  of  the  tissue  in  order  to  demonstrate  them. 
In  a  few  cases  their  presence  can  only  be  revealed  by  inocula- 
tion. 

The  identity  of  tuberculosis  in  man  and  animals.  — A\- 
though  Villemin  in  1865  demonstrated  that  tuberculous 
material  from  men  or  cows  could  produce  tuberculosis  in 
rabbits  if  inoculated  under  the  skin,  it  was  not  until  after  the 
discovery  of  the  bacillus  of  Koch  that  the  contagious  nature 
of  the  disease  and  its  identity  in  human  beings  and  animals 
began  to  be  generally  recognised. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  85 

Observations  and  experiments  011  animals  have  now  fur- 
nished us  with  abundance  of  evidence  to  show  that  tuberculosis 
in  mammals  arises  from  one  common  cause.  Although  the 
voice  of  experiment  is  silent  regarding  the  transmission  of 
tuberculosis  animalis  to  human  beings,  the  chapter  of  accidents 
unfortunately  supplies  us  with  plenty  of  proof  that  the 
disease  can  be  transmitted ;  nobody  now  doubts  it.  The 
identity  of  the  avian  tubercle  bacillus,  however,  with  the 
bacillus  of  mammalian  tuberculosis,  remained  in  dispute  after 
the  other  question  had  been  settled.  It  has  been  shown  that 
artificial  cultures  of 

bacilli  from  the  two  -         .      *  Jfc*£  \ 

sources  do  not  present 
an   identical    appear- 
ance, that  birds  in  the 
majority  of  cases  re-          /^ 
sist  inoculation  with          k^j  ^ 
tuberculous  material  v.-  jjf* 

from  mammals,  and       '  ^  V 

that  dogs  and  guinea- 
pigs  are  highly  resis- 

with  material  taken  FIG.  8.— Tubercle  Bacillus,     x  1000. 

from  tubercular  birds. 

In  a  few  cases,  however,  positive  results  have  been  obtained 
in  fowls  with  human  tuberculous  material,  and  in  guinea-pigs 
with  that  from  the  fowl.  Moreover,  it  has  been  shown  by 
Nocard,  Cadiot,  Gilbert  and  Roger,  and  others,  that  once  avian 
tubercle  has  been  transmitted  to  the  guinea-pig,  the  disease 
can  be  inoculated  readily  enough  in  series  to  other  animals 
of  the  same  species.  The  lesions  are  at  first  somewhat  differ- 
ent to  those  produced  by  tuberculous  matter  of  mammalian 
origin,  but  after  a  few  passages  through  guinea-pigs  the 
resulting  lesions  become  identical.  Nocard,  again,  asserts 
that  the  horse  is  as  susceptible  to  avian  tuberculosis  as  to 
mammalian,  and  he  has  shown  that  tubercle  bacilli  of 


86  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

human  origin,  if  they  be  accustomed  to  the  organism  of  the 
fowl,  take  all  the  characters  of  the  aviaii  type  of  bacillus. 
Nocard  inserted  collodion  capsules  containing  cultures  of 
human  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  peritoneal  cavities  of  fowls. 
The  capsules  serve  to  protect  the  microbes  from  the  attacks 
of  the  phagocytes,  but  allow  a  free  interchange  to  go  on  between 
the  fluids  of  the  body  and  the  artificial  culture  medium.  After 
three  changes  and  several  months'  incubation  in  the  abdominal 
cavity,  the  bacilli  are  capable  of  killing  the  fowl.  There  seems 
little  doubt,  then,  that  the  avian  bacillus  is  simply  a  modified 
form  of  the  mammalian  microbe.  There  is  only  one  tuber- 
culosis, but  all  animals  are  not  alike  susceptible  of  contracting 
the  disease  from  those  of  another  species. 

Lesions.— When  tubercle  bacilli  settle  in  a  tissue,  they  begin 
to  multiply.  They  excite  a  proliferation  in  the  fixed  tissue  cells 
of  the  part,  and  they  attract  the  leucocytes  towards  them. 
The  result  is  that  the  microbes  become  surrounded  by  cells, 
which  are  apparently  bent  on  destroying  the  invaders.  This 
is  the  commencement  of  the  so-called  tubercle,  and  it  first 
makes  itself  evident  to  the  naked  eye  as  a  greyish  white 
speck  about  the  size  of  a  millet-seed.  Every  tubercle,  then, 
is  a  miliary  one  to  start  with. 

The  tissue  cells  may  triumph  over  the  bacilli  and  pi-e- 
vent further  mischief,  but  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases— 
one  cannot  say  in  what  proportion— the  result  is  not  so 
fortunate. 

Usually  the  miliary  tubercle  continues  to  increase  in  size, 
and  bacilli  are  carried  to  adjacent  parts,  where  they  start 
fresh  tubercles.  These  adjacent  tubercles  coalesce  and  the 
growth  assumes  the  proportion  of  a  nodule.  During  the 
growth  of  the  bacilli  they  elaborate  certain  products,  some 
of  which  cause  the  cells  to  undergo  a  cheese-like  or  caseous 
degeneration. 

The  nodules  commonly  vary  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  nut, 
but  caseous  areas  of  much  greater  extent  may  be  formed  from 
confluence.  The  smaller  nodules  consist  of  a  yellowish  centre 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  87 

of  caseous  material  and  a  firmer  greyish  periphery,  which  is 
sometimes  fibrous.  The  consistence  of  the  caseous  material 
varies  from  that  of  thick  pus  to  that  of  ordinary  cheese,  but 
the  less  purulent  tubercles  are  often  infiltrated  with  gritty 
calcareous  matter.  More  rarely  the  tubercles  assume  the  form 
of  small  grey  fibrous  nodules  about  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed. 
The  latter  form  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  lungs  of  pigs 
and  oxen.  The  nodules  are  found  throughout  the  infected 
organ  in  numbers  varying  from  two  or  three  to  many 
hundreds. 

When  tuberculous  lesions  come  under  the  eye  of  the  patho- 
logist, they  are  acute  miliary  or  chronic  nodular  in  form.  By 
acute  miliary  tuberculosis  one  understands— first,  that  the 
tubercles  in  one  or  more  organs  are  all  of  nearly  the  same 
size,  .viz.  about  that  of  a  millet-seed  ;  secondly,  that  they  are 
equally  and  densely  distributed  throughout  the  organ  on  the 
course  of  its  capillaries. 

When  the  lesions  have  the  above  distribution,  the  disease  is 
said  to  be  generalised  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  bacilli  have  been  in 
the  blood  stream,  and  consequently  may  have  reached  any 
organ  in  the  body. 

In  the  chronic  or  nodular  form,  the  tubercles  are  not  so 
numerous  nor  so  densely  packed  in  the  organ.  They  are  of 
different  sizes  or  ages,  and  most  of  them  are  much  larger  than 
a  millet-seed. 

The  microscope  shows  that  in  the  earlier  stages  the  tubercles 
consist  of  a  few  large  epithelioid  cells  which  have  arisen  from 
the  fixed  tissues,  and  some  leucocytes  are  present. 

The  bacilli  are  so  few  that  their  presence  may  be  overlooked, 
if  only  one  or  two  sections  be  examined.  About  the  tenth  day, 
giant  cells  appear  in  the  growth.  These  are  large  multi- 
nucleated  cells.  They  have  a  homogeneous  yellowish-looking 
centre  and  several  nuclei  towards  the  periphery.  The  giant 
cells  are  supposed  to  arise  from  fusion  of  several  contiguous 
small  cells,  or  from  repeated  division  of  the  nucleus  of  one  cell 
without  a  corresponding  separation  of  the  cell  protoplasm. 


88  MEAT  INSPECTION 

In  the  older  tubercles  the  giant  cells  are  more  numerous, 
yellow  structureless  patches  of  caseous  material  are  seen,  and 
a  greater  number  of  bacilli  are  present.  Fibrous  tissue  may 
be  seen  forming  at  the  margin  of  the  tubercle,  or  it  may  be 
completely  encapsuled  in  a  fibrous  shell  and  infiltrated  with 
salts. 


FIG.  9. — Tuberculous  nodule  in  lung  of  cow  (Reicliert, 
obj.  3).  The  lung  tissue  around  the  nodule  is 
emphysematous. 

When  the  preparation  is  suitably  stained,  the  bacilli  are  seen 
singly  or  in  clumps  between  the  cells  and  inside  the  giant 
cells. 

The  above  may  be  described  as  the  typical  appearance,  if 
such  an  adjective  can  be  applied  to  the  structure  of  a  tubercle. 

More  rarely  the  giant  cells  are  absent  from  a  tubercle,  and 
the  bacilli  may  be  so  few  that  very  laborious  searching  with 
the  microscope  is  necessary  to  find  them.  The  amount  of 
fibrous  tissue  in  the  latter  cases  is  generally  great ;  there  may 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  89 

be  caseous  centres  in  the  still  cellular  parts,  or  degeneration 
may  be  absent. 

In  the  tuberculous  lesions  of  the  fowl  giant  cells  are  absent. 

Pathogiiomonic  character  of  the  lesions.— Strictly  speaking, 
the  only  specific  components  of  the  tubercle  are  the  bacilli. 
They  may,  however,  be  too  few  in  number  to  be  revealed  by 
the  microscope,  and  inoculation  to  animals  would  but  little 
serve  the  purpose  of  the  Meat  Inspector. 

In  the  absence  of  the  bacillus,  then,  it  is  important  to  know 
what  weight  can  be  attached  to  the  histological  structure  of 
the  tubercle. 

Martin  has  shown  that  materials  other  than  tubercle  bacilli, 
such  as  cheese,  pepper,  lycopodium  seeds,  cantharides,  and 
mercury  give  rise  to  a  similar  formation  when  introduced 
experimentally  into  the  tissues.  Dead  tubercle  bacilli  produce 
the  same  effect.  Again,  the  embryos  of  the  Strongylus  rufescens 
give  rise  to  somewhat  similar  tubercles  in  the  lungs  of  sheep 
and  goats. 

In  the  lungs  of  pigs  we  meet  with  the  same  kind  of  lesions 
caused  by  the  embryos  of  8.  paradoxus. 

What  is  to  guide  us,  then,  in  forming  an  opinion  of  the 
character  of  the  tubercle  when  the  bacillus  cannot  be  found  ? 
There  are  several  points  of  great  importance  in  this  respect, 
viz.  :  — 

1.  None  of  the  other  bodies  produce  caseation  to  the  same 
extent  as  living  tubercle  bacilli. 

2.  The  true  tubercle  is  a  progressive  lesion,  whereas  the 
pseudotubercle  remains  local. 

3.  The   species  of   the   animal   under   examination ;   true 
tuberculosis  is  rare  in  the  sheep  and  goat. 

4.  The  absence  of  other  parasites  capable  of  exciting  the 
same  kind  of  growth.     The  latter  are  chiefly  the  actinomyces 
in  the  ox  and  pig,  the  glanders  bacillus  in  the  horse,  and  the 
before-mentioned  animal  embryos  in  the  sheep,  pig,  and  goat. 

Practically  there  is  small  chance  of  error  when  dealing  with 
the  ox  and  sheep,  in  this  country  at  least.  In  the  ox  about 


90  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

99  per  cent,  of  tuberculous-looking  lesions  in  the  internal  organs 
will  be  found  due  to  the  tubercle  bacillus.  In  the  sheep  and 
goat  an  even  larger  proportion  of  the  lung  tubercles  are  caused 
by  parasitic  embryos. 

Other  important  points  in  the  differential  diagnosis  will  be 
more  easily  dealt  with  when  considering  the  disease  in  the 
different  organs,  and  in  the  chapters  upon  other  diseases  with 
similar  lesions. 

Tuberculosis  in  the  different  organs  and  the  paths  of  in- 
fection.—Primary  infection  takes  place  in  the  majority  of  cases 
by  way  of  the  respiratory  or  alimentary  tracts.  The  difficulty 
of  experimentally  infecting  animals  by  causing  them  to  ingest 
tuberculous  material  is  well  known.  The  gastric  juice  destroys 
many  of  the  bacilli  before  they  can  pass  to  the  tissues.  Never- 
theless, positive  results  can  be  obtained  by  using  large  quantities, 
and  cases  of  natural  infection  by  way  of  the  alimentary  tract 
are  too  numerous  to  allow  one  to  make  light  of  this  mode  of 
incursion.  The  possibility  of  infection  by  subcutaneous  inocu- 
lation, by  way  of  the  teats  in  the  cow,  and  by  the  urino-genital 
tract,  is  undoubted,  but  the  bacilli  seldom  enter  the  body  of 
those  paths.  The  primary  lesions,  then,  will  be  found  mostly 
in  the  respiratory  and  alimentary  tracts  or  in  the  glands  which 
are  in  direct  communication  with  them,  for  some  post-mortem 
examinations  leave  a  strong  impression  that  tubercle  bacilli 
may  enter  an  organ  such  as  the  lung,  and  pass  to  the  glands, 
without  giving  rise  to  any  preliminary  lesion  of  the  organ  they 
first  came  in  contact  with.  That,  at  least,  is  the  only  feasible 
explanation  one  can  give  of  such  primary  lesions  as  we  find  in 
the  bronchial,  mediastiiial,  and  pharyngeal  glands.  In  cases 
of  congenital  tuberculosis,  however,  the  primary  lesions  are 
found  in  the  liver  or  in  the  retrohepatic  glands.  Once  the 
tubercle  bacillus  has  gained  a  decided  footing  in  a  tissue,  it  by 
degrees  infects  neighbouring  parts,  and  the  related  Imyph 
glands  are  generally  invaded  in  a  comparatively  short  time. 
The  tissues  react  to  the  presence  of  the  bacilli  by  throwing 
around  them  a  cordon  of  cells,  which  for  a  time  impedes  their 


•'••• 


PLATE  iv. 


Miliary  Tubercle  of  Pleura. 

Piece  of  lung— external  view— with  the  grape-like  masses  of  Miliary  Tubercle, 
connected  together  by  flbrinous  bands. 


Position  of  Inferior  Border  of  Lung  of  Cow,  showing — 

a.  a.  a.  Sessile  Masses  on  the  surface  of  the  ft.  b.  b.  Pedunculated  Masses  growing  from 

Pleura.  the  Pleura  at  the  extreme  bor- 

der—Dr.  Crichton's  festoons. 


Lymphatic  Gland  (Bronchial)  of  Cow,  laid  open  to  show  the  deposition  of  caseous  and  calcareous 
Tubercle  in   its  interior  —  mainly  at   its   hiluin  —  with  detached  smaller  masses. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  91 

further  advance.  In  a  time,  however,  commensurate  with 
the  activity  of  the  bacilli  and  the  resistance  of  the  organism  to 
it,  the  barrier  is  cleared,  and  fresh  areas  are  invaded. 

Suppose  the  bacilli  to  have  established  themselves  on  some 
lymph  gland,  they  are  arrested  for  such  a  time  as  the  cells  hold 
out,  then  they  pass  on  and  on  until  the  last  barrier  which 
separates  them  from  the  main  veins  is  cleared.  Once  in  the 
veins,  they  pass  through  the  right  heart  and  commence  their 
pererration  of  the  organs.  The  foregoing  is  probably  the  usual 
manner  of  generalisation,  but  there  are  other  possibilities.  A 
tubercle  in  the  lung  might  penetrate  a  branch  of  the  pulmonary 
veins  and  pour  its  bacilli  into  the  left  auricle  (MTadyean),  or  a 
similar  accident  might  happen  to  a  vessel  more  remote  from 
the  heart.  It  is  probable  that  an  occasional  bacillus  will  be 
carried  into  the  circulation  by  the  leucocytes,  but  it  is  also  prob- 
able that  in  such  small  numbers  they  are  not  likely  to  give 
rise  to  distinct  lesions.  In  any  case,  we  need  not  fear  a  true 
blood  stream  contamination  by  this  method.  Given  the 
bacilli  in  the  right  heart,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  will  take 
up  their  abode  in  every  organ  of  the  body.  The  majority  of 
them  are  arrested  in  the  capillary  filter  of  the  lungs,  a  com- 
paratively small  number  passing  through  to  the  left  heart.  It 
is  almost  inconceivable  that  the  microbes,  when  they  reach  the 
arterial  circulation  in  considerable  numbers,  do  not  enter  most 
of  the  organs,  but  for  reasons  ill  understood  they  show  little 
tendency  to  form  a  permanent  settlement  in  some  of  them. 
It  may  be  that  the  vessels  of  certain  organs  are  less  able  to  retain 
the  microbes,  that  they  have  been  arrested  in  too  small  numbers 
to  produce  a  distinct  lesion,  or  less  probably,  that  they  have 
found  a  soil  unsuitable  for  their  development.  Be  this  as  it 
may,  the  recent  researches  of  H'Fadyean  show  clearly  that 
in  experimentally  generalised  cases  of  tuberculosis  of  the  ox, 
even  Avhen  very  large  numbers  of  bacilli  are  inoculated,  well- 
marked  acute  miliary  lesions  may  be  present  in  the  lungs, 
while  other  organs,  such  as  the  spleen,  liver,  and  kidney,  may 
not  even  show  microscopic  tubercles.  Moreover,  it  is  a  notorious 


9  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

fact  that  the  muscles  are  quite  exceptionally  the  seats  of  tuber- 
culous lesions,  although  they  are  often  invaded  by  bacilli.1 

The  foregoing  remarks  are  important  to  bear  in  mind  when 
the  inspector  has  to  decide  whether  generalisation  has  taken 
place  or  not,  but  they  are  not  to  be  interpreted  as  meaning 
that  there  would  be  no  risk  in  eating  the  organs  from  a  general- 
ised case,  although  these  may  show  neither  macroscopical  nor 
microscopical  lesions.  Inoculation  experiments  on  animals 
with  the  juice  expressed  from  such  organs  have  given  many 
positive  results,  hence  a  certain  amount  of  risk  must  be  ad- 
mitted, whatever  be  its  degree. 

The  order  in  which  the  bacilli  from  a  certain  starting-point 
invade  the  different  organs  is  of  cardinal  importance  to  the  in- 
spector. Unfortunately,  however,  the  succession  of  events  in  one 
species  can  only  be  applied  to  others  in  a  general  sense,  and  this 
problem  has  not  been  the  subject  of  the  same  amount  of  experi- 
mental investigation  in  all.  Particularly  is  this  the  case  in  the 
larger  animals,  whose  price  has  prevented  them  from  figuring 
largely  in  experimental  pathology.  In  the  absence  of  the  more 
positive  information  which  one  acquires  from  a  large  series  of 
experiments  designed  with  the  above  object  in  view,  much  of 
our  information  regarding  the  progression  of  the  lesions  has 
been  gathered  from  post-mortem  examinations  of  natural  cases. 
Where  it  is  possible  to  form  an  opinion  of  the  relative  ages  of 
the  lesions  in  two  or  more  organs,  we  may  correlate  our  ideas 
and  obtain  fairly  exact  information  regarding  the  order  and 
manner  of  invasion.  A  careful  consideration  of  the  experi- 
mental information  available  will  further  assist  us  in  coming 
to  a  conclusion. 

Aiioing,  and  more  recently  Delepine,  have  traced  the  pro- 
gress of  experimentally  produced  lesions  in  the  guinea-pig. 
If  a  guinea-pig  be  inoculated  in  the  thigh  with  tuberculous 
material,  the  lesion  spreads  unilaterally  to  the  inguinal  glands, 

1  The  Editor  lias  on  one  occasion  examined  a  cover-glass  preparation  of  muscle 
juice,  in  which  tubercle  bacilli  were  abundantly  present.  This,  however,  is 
quite  exceptional. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  93 

then  to  the  sublumbar  lymphatic  ganglia,  next  to  the  spleen 
and  retrohepatic  glands,  from  there  to  the  liver,  and  next  to 
the  bronchial  glands  and  lungs.  Once  the  diaphragm  is  passed, 
the  lesion  no  longer  spreads  in  a  unilateral  manner.  The 
bronchial  glands  and  the  lungs  are  affected,  and  the  other 
glands  on  both  sides  of  the  body  become  tuberculous.  The 
infection  spreads  later  to  the  glands  below  the  diaphragm 
on  the  side  opposite  to  that  inoculated.  When  the  primary 
infection  takes  place  at  an  anterior  extremity  (the  base  of 
an  ear),  the  lesions  follow  a  similar  course  in  the  opposite 
direction . 

There  would  be  a  risk  of  error  in  applying  in  toto  to  other 
animals  what  takes  place  in  the  guinea-pig,  since  the  lesions  do 
not  follow  the  same  course  in  the  rabbit.  Moreover,  there  are 
some  points  regarding  this  manner  of  progression  which  require 
to  be  cleared  up  before  drawing  too  sweeping  deductions  from 
it.  It  would  be  useless,  however,  to  discuss  these  at  present, 
but  apparently  the  infection  may  spread  along  the  lymphatic 
system  in  what  seems  to  be  a  backward  direction,  according  to 
our  ideas  of  the  direction  taken  by  the  lymph  stream. 

The  experiments  of  G.  Colin,  performed  on  young  oxen 
before  those  of  Arloing  on  guinea-pigs,  show  that  the  course 
of  invasion  is  much  the  same  in  the  former  animals  as  in  the 
latter. 

This  chapter  would  hardly  be  complete  without  referring 
to  the  methods  whereby  the  different  organs  may  become 
secondarily  infected.  For  convenience,  the  anatomical  changes 
in  each,  in  so  far  as  they  vary  from  the  usual,  will  be  described 
at  the  same  time.  To  save  repetition,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  description  of  the  typical  tubercle  already  given.  He 
is  reminded  that  any  organ  may  be  invaded  by  its  blood  supply 
and  show  the  acute  miliary  lesion. 

Blood.— The  bacilli  do  not  remain  long  in  the  blood,  they 
are  soon  filtered  off  by  the  various  capillary  networks.  The 
researches  of  Nocard,  MTadyean,  and  Leclainche  show  that 
the  blood  loses  its  virulence  in  from  four  to  twenty-four  hours. 


94  MEAT  INSPECTION 

The  later  experiments  of  MTadyean,  however,  show  that  it 
may  become  virulent  again  owing  to  a  fresh  eruption  of  bacilli. 
It  is  impossible  to  establish  the  virulence  of  the  blood  except 
by  inoculation. 

The  larynx,  trachea,  and  lungs.— The  larynx  and  trachea 
are  probably  infected  by  mucus  from  a  diseased  lung.  They 
show  ulcers  on  the  mucous  membrane.  Notwithstanding  the 
frequency  of  pulmonary  lesions,  the  trachea  and  larynx  are 
seldom  affected  with  tuberculosis. 

The  lungs  may  be  infected  primarily  by  way  of  the  bronchial 
tubes.  Thev  mav  also  be  invaded  in  a  backward  direction 


FIG.  10. — Section  of  lung,  showing  miliary  tuberculosis 
(nat.  size). — M'FADYEAN. 

from  the  bronchial  glands.  A  healthy  part  of  the  organ  may 
be  infected  from  a  diseased  part  by  way  of  the  lymphatics  or 
by  contaminated  mucus  passing  into  its  bronchial  tubes  and 
alveoli. 

The  most  common  form  of  lesion  is  a  tuberculous  broncho- 
pneumonia.  A  variable  number  of  caseous  nodules  are  found 
in  the  parenchyma,  or  quite  a  large  tract  may  be  converted 
into  a  cheesy  mass.  Sometimes  in  the  pig,  less  frequently 
in  the  ox,  the  tubercles  are  grey  and  fibrous,  showing  little 
tendency  to  become  caseous. 

An  acute  miliary  lesion  may  have  supervened  on  a  chronic 
one.  It  is  in  the  lungs  that  one  finds  the  most  distinct  embolic 


PLATE  vn 


Photograph  of  Abdominal  and  Thoracic  surface  of  the  Carcase  of  a  Cow, 
showing  diffuse  Nodular  Tuberculosis  of  the  Pleura  and  Peritoneum. 

o.  a.  Section  through  Dorsal  Vertebrae. 

6.  6.  Parietal  Pleura.    The  dark  spots  representing  the  Tuberculous  Nodules. 

c.  c.  Peritoneum  with  Tubercular  Nodules. 

d.  d.  Kidney  Pat. 
t.  Flank. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

£dUfQR]^a 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  95 

lesions,  as,  owing  to  their  situation  and  vascular  arrangements, 
they  can  hardly  escape  when  bacilli  get  into  the  circulation. 
It  is  in  the  lung  that  one  looks  for  evidence  of  generalisation 
having  taken  place.  It  is  conceivable,  however,  that  one  may 
meet  with  cases  in  which  generalisation  has  taken  place  so 
recently  that  the  disseminated  embolic  lesions  are  not  evident 
to  the  naked  eye. 

The  Editor  has  met  with  several  cases  of  advanced  tuber- 
culosis in  which  all  the  signs  of  multiple  embolism,  congestion 
of  large  capillary  areas,  and  slight  oedema  of  the  lung  tissue, 
were  present.  Such  an  appearance  should  be  looked  on  with 
suspicion. 

Lymphatic  glands.— The  different  glands  of  the  body  are 
infected  usually  by  the  lymph  stream  from  other  glands  in  line 
with  them  or  from  affected  organs  drained  by  them.  Atten- 
tion has  already  been  drawn  to  the  possibility  of  the  infection 
operating  by  the  Imyph  paths  in  what  is  apparently  a  back- 
ward or  centrifugal  direction.  For  example,  the  pharyngeal 
and  submaxillary  glands  may  be  infected  by  material  taken  in 
by  the  mouth  or  by  mucus  expectorated  from  a  diseased  lung, 
and  a  primary  lesion  in  the  pharyngeals  may  spread  to  the 
prescapular,  prepectoral,  and  other  glands  of  the  part,  or  they 
may  be  all  ultimately  infected  backwards  from  the  pleura. 
The  glands  in  the  abdomen  may  be  infected  from  the  intestine 
or  from  the  inguinal  glands  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  outside 
those  induced  by  experimental  inoculation.  Apparently,  how- 
eVer,  the  former  may  in  a  backward  direction  infect  the  latter 
and  the  supramammary  glands. 

At  first  the  gland  becomes  swollen  and  oedematous,  and  it- 
may  be  in  this  condition  for  some  time  before  macroscopical 
tubercles  can  be  seen.  Swelling  and  oedema  of  a  lymph  gland 
must  always  be  regarded  as  suspicious  in  a  tuberculous  carcase. 
In  the  ox  and  pig  the  tubercles  in  the  glands  are  often 
calcified. 

Pleura. —The  pleura  may  be  infected  from  the  glands  of 
the  chest  or  by  direct  extension  from  the  lung  itself.  Once  the 


96  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

disease  is  started  in  one  part  of  the  membrane,  the  bacilli  may 
be  carried  to  other  parts  by  the  lymph  stream. 

In  the  earliest  stages  a  red  slimy  exudate  covers  the  part 
and  sometimes  agglutinates  the  lobes  or  surfaces  (false  mem- 
brane). Distinct  yellowish-looking  tubercles  appear  at  a  later 
stage,  and  a  good  deal  of  new  fibrous  tissue  is  formed,  which 
unites  many  of  the  nodules  into  one  mass.  In  this  way  tuber- 
culous masses  of  several  inches  thick  may  arise  on  the  pleurae. 
These  formations  are  greyish  in  colour,  moist  looking,  and 
when  incised  show  numerous  caseous  and  calcified  centres. 

Heart,  pericardium,  and  vessels.— The  pericardium  is  in- 
fected from  the  pleura  or  bronchial  glands.  From  the  parietal 
layer  the  disease  may  spread  to  the  visceral  and  thence  to  the 
heart  wall. 

The  Editor  has  recorded  a  case  of  tuberculous  myocarditis 
in  a  cow,  in  which  the  parietal  and  outer  surface  of  the  visceral 
pericardium  were  healthy. 

The  lesions  in  the  membrane  are  like  those  found  on  the 
pleura. 

The  heart  muscle  is  invaded  generally  from  without  inwards. 
The  muscular  tissue  is  replaced  by  caseous  nodules.  In  the 
above  case  recorded  by  the  Editor,  the  walls  of  both  auricles 
and  ventricles  were  almost  completely  converted  into  a  caseous 
and  calcareous  mass.  The  uninvaded  tissue  was  represented 
by  a  strip  measuring  half  an  inch  in  breadth.  The  organ 
weighed  47  Ibs.  Tubercle  of  the  heart  wall,  however,  is  not 
common. 

Cases  of  tuberculosis  in  the  larger  vessels  have  been  recorded. 
The  Editor  has  met  with  it  at  the  seat  of  experimental  inocula- 
tion into  the  veins. 

Liver. —The  disease  may  spread  from  the  peritoneal  covering 
to  the  substance  of  the  organ,  but  usually  the  tubercles  do  not 
extend  very  deeply  in  such  cases.  The  organ  may  also  be  in- 
fected from  the  retrohepatic  glands  and  by  way  of  the  portal 
blood  from  the  spleen  and  intestines,  when  tubercles  in  these 
parts  have  penetrated  a  portal  branch.  In  the  foetus  the  liver 


PLATE  v 


External  Surface  of  a  Lobe  of  the  Liver  of  a  Hen,  showing 
lesions  of  Tuberculosis. 

o.  Distended  Capillaries  of  its  Capsule. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  97 

may  be  infected  by  way  of  the  umbilical  vein,  which  passes 
through  the  organ. 

The  organ  shows  tubercles  of  various  sizes,  \vhich  in 
the  ox  and  pig  are  often  very  caseous.  In  the  ox  one 
sometimes  finds  the  lesion  in  the  form  of  an  abscess,  con- 
taining a  fluid  greenish  pus  and  surrounded  by  a  thin 
fibrous  capsule.  All  such  abscesses  in  the  liver,  of  course, 
are  not  tuberculous,  but  the  Editor  has  satisfied  himself 
that  many  of  them  are.  Cirrhosis  sometimes  accompanies 
the  tuberculous  lesions. 

In  the  pig  one  may  meet  with  a  lesion  of  lymphatic  origin 
so  disseminated  that  it  is  very  like  an  acute  miliary  tuberculosis. 
The  tubercles,  however,  are  of  different  ages.  In  tuberculous 
fowls  the  liver  is  almost  always  the  seat  of  lesions.  The  tubercles 
vary  in  size  from  a  pin  head  to  a  pea.  They  are  often  very 
caseous,  but  commonly  enough  the  small  ones  are  quite  fibrous 
in  consistence,  easily  enucleated,  and  difficult  to  break  up. 
Amyloid  material  is  often  present  at  the  margin  of  the  tubercle 
in  the  fowl. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  may  be  invaded  from  its  lymphatic 
glands  or  from  its  peritoneal  covering.  Although  tuberculous 
lesions  on  the  peritoneal  covering  are  not  rare  in  the  ox,  the 
substance  of  the  organ  is  seldom  the  seat  of  tubercles.  The 
rarity  of  splenic  lesions  might  almost  be  called  a  feature  of 
tuberculosis  in  the  ox.  Even  in  generalised  cases,  macroscopic 
lesion  are  seldom  found  in  the  spleens  of  oxen. 

In  the  pig,  fowl,  and  horse,  on  the  contrary,  splenic  lesions 
are  common,  and,  from  what  has  been  said  regarding  infection, 
it  follows  that  the  organ  may  be  invaded  by  other  paths  than 
its  blood  vessels. 

The  organ  is  enlarged.  The  lesion  in  the  pig  and  horse 
may  assume  one  of  twro  forms.  In  the  one  form  the  tubercles 
show  themselves  as  conical  nodules,  about  the  size  of  a  marble, 
under  the  capsule.  These  nodules  may  be  quite  caseous  or 
hard,  and  almost  fibrous.  In  the  latter  ease  they  are  abruptly 
separated  from  the  healthy  tissue.  In  the  other  form  the 
7 


98  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

lesion  is  more  diffuse,  a  good  deal  of  new  tissue  is  formed,  and 
in  this  the  tubercles  are  found. 

Tuberculous  nodules,  sometimes  of  large  size,  are  found 
in  the  spleen  of  the  fowl.  Usually  they  are  fibrous  and  difficult 
to  break  down. 

The  stomach  and  intestines.  —  Infection  of  the  stomach 
sometimes  occurs  when  large  numbers  of  bacilli  are  swallowed. 
This  takes  place  when  the  mucus,  laden  with  bacilli  from  a 
diseased  lung,  is  expectorated  into  the  pharynx  and  swallowed. 
As  one  might  expect,  tuberculous  lesions  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane are  rarely  met  with.  M'Fadyean  records  a  case  of  tuber- 
culous ulceration  of  the  rumen,  and  one  where  the  ulcers  were 
on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum  in  the  cow.  The 
Editor  has  met  with  one  case  of  tubercle  of  the  abomasum 
in  the  cow.  No  ulcers  were  present,  but  about  half  a  dozen 
fibrous  nodules  the  size  of  a  swan-shot  were  found  under  the 
mucous  membrane.  Tubercle  bacilli  were  found  between  the 
fibres. 

The  intestines  are  infected  by  bacilli  that  have  escaped  the 
gastric  juice.  These  bacilli  have  in  cattle  usually  come  from 
the  lungs,  but  they  may  have  been  taken  in  from  outside 
sources  with  the  food ;  they  may  pass  to  the  glands  without 
provoking  a  lesion  in  the  bowel.  The  lesions,  when  present, 
consist  of  tuberculous  ulcers  most  commonly  found  at  the  level 
of  Peyer's  patches. 

J       In  the  fowl  the  bowel  is  often  the  seat  of  tuberculous  ulcers 
or  nodules. 

Peritoneum,  mesentery,  and  omentum.— The  peritoneum 
is  infected  from  the  bowel,  from  the  mesenteric  glands,  or 
through  the  diaphragm  from  the  pleura  by  the  lymph  vessels. 
According  to  M'Fadyean,  the  infection  almost  invariably  takes 
place  by  one  of  the  lymph  paths. 

The  lesion  is  very  like  that  on  the  pleura,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  mesentery  and  omentum. 

Kidney.— Tuberculosis  of  the  kidney  is  not  common.  In- 
fection takes  place  by  the  lymph  or  blood  streams, 


PLATE   VI 


Coils  of  Intestines  of  a  Hen,  showing— 

a.  a.  a.  a.  Sessile  tubercular  nodules  in  the  Intestinal  Walls. 

b.  A  large  pedunculated  Tubercular  Nodule, 
c.  c.  c.  Intestines, 
-d.  d.  rf.  Mesentery  and  Mesenteric  Fat, 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  99 

In  the  ox  one  usually  finds  a  large  tuberculous  nodule 
surrounded  by  fibrous  tissues  in  one  or  two  nodules.  More 
rarely  the  lesion  is  acute  miliary  in  character. 

Uterus.— The  uterus  is  infected  also  from  the  peritoneum 
by  way  of  the  lymph  vessels,  or  possibly  by  the  Fallopian  tubes. 
The  lesions  are  found  in  the  horns  or  over  the  whole  organ. 
They  consist  of  caseous  ulceration  of  the  mucous  membrane 
and  fibrous  thickening. 

Ovary.— The  ovary  may  be  infected  from  the  peritoneum. 
The  organ  is  enlarged,  fibrous,  and  shows  the  usual  tubercles. 

Testicles. —The  testicles  are  seldom  tuberculous.  They 
may  be  invaded  from  the  peritoneum  or  by  way  of  the  blood 
stream. 

Mammary  gland.— This  organ  is  invaded  by  bacilli  in  the 
blood  stream,  or  by  those  that  have  travelled  along  the  lymph 
vessels  from  the  supramammary  lymph  glands.  It  is  possible 
that  the  gland  may  in  exceptional  cases  be  invaded  by  way  of 
the  teat. 

In  the  case  of  an  embolic  invasion,  tubercles  are  scattered 
through  the  organ ;  but  one  does  not  expect  to  see  so  dense  a 
crop  of  them  as  one  finds  in  the  lung,  because  the  greater 
part  of  the  bacilli  have  been  removed  from  the  blood  by  the 
latter  organ. 

Frequently  only  one  quarter  is  the  seat  of  disease,  but  all 
four  may  show  tubercles.  In  the  early  stages  the  affected 
quarters  are  swollen ;  latterly  they  become  much  enlarged  and 
fibrous.  Distinct  tubercles  are  usually  found  in  the  organ, 
but  in  a  considerable  proportion  of  cases  the  naked  eye  appear- 
ances are  calculated  to  mislead  the  uninitiated. 

In  one  form  the  acini  seem  to  be  plugged  with  yellow  clots 
in  certain  areas.  This  appearance  might  be  passed  over  as 
acute  non-tuberculous  mammitis,  which  it  resembles.  In  the 
latter,  however,  the  clots  are  whiter ;  they  are,  in  fact,  coagul- 
ated milk.  To  be  certain  in  these  cases  it  is  necessary  to 
examine  cover-glass  preparations  properly  stained.  In  another 
form  the  chief  alteration  to  the  naked  eye  is  cirrhosis  of  the 


IOO 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


gland.  The  Editor  has  met  with  several  cases  of  chronic 
interstitial  mammitis,  which  would  have  been  passed  over  as 
non-tuberculous  had  a  microscopical  examination  not  been 
made. 

Nerve  centres.— They  are  very  seldom  the  seat  of  tuber- 


m 


FIG.  11. — Microscopical  section  of  a  cow's  udder  affected 
with  chronic  tuberculosis  (Beichert,  obj.  3).  Tuber- 
culous elements  and  fibrous  tissue  have  replaced  the 
normal  glandular  tissue. 

culous  lesions.  The  cord  and  its  meninges  may  be  invaded 
from  a  tuberculous  vertebra. 

The  brain,  according  to  MTadyean,  is  most  likely  to  be 
invaded  from  diseased  glands  at  the  base  of  the  skull. 

The  lesions  take  the  form  of  a  miliary  eruption  on  the 
piamater,  or  of  caseous  tuberculous  masses  in  the  substance. 

Bones.— Tuberculosis  in  bones  is  not  common  in  the 
lower  animals.  They  are  probably  invaded  mostly  by  the 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  101 

lymph  stream  or  from  neighbouring  lymph  glands  by  con- 
tiguity. 

The  bones  most  commonly  affected  are  the  vertebrae  and 
the  ribs.  The  Editor  has  met  with  it  in  the  submaxilla  of 
the  ox. 

In  the  vertebrae  the  lesion  is  in  the  form  of  a  tuberculous 
caries.  The  jawbone  becomes  swollen,  softened,  and  necrotic. 

Muscle.— The  muscles  are  often  invaded  bv  tubercle  bacilli 


FIG.  12. — Tuberculous  vertebra.—  M '.FAD YEAN. 

entering  through  their  blood  vessels,  but  muscular  lesions  are 
of  the  rarest.  Probably  when  lesions  occur,  the  bacilli  have 
travelled  backwards  from  the  nearest  lymph  glands,  when  the 
latter  are  in  a  state  of  advanced  tuberculosis. 

In  two  cases  of  muscular  tuberculosis  in  the  pig— one  in 
the  arm,  the  other  in  the  hip— observed  by  the  Editor,  the 
glands  draining  the  muscles  were  almost  completely  caseous. 

The  lesion  takes  the  form  of  a  chronic  interstitial  myositis. 
The  section  is  rather  like  that  of  a  mammary  gland  affected 
with  cirrhosis.  Pale  yellow  centres,  many  of  them  calcined 
and  surrounded  by  a  fibrous  ring,  are  seen  in  the  muscle. 


102  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

One  or  two  cases  of  tuberculosis  have  been  recorded  in  the 
tongue  of  the  ox.  The  lesion  may  be  either  limited  or  dissemin- 
ated. The  organ  is  probably  invaded  by  its  lymph  stream; 
local  inoculation  appears  improbable.  One  or  two  hard  fibrous 
nodules  are  found  in  the  substance,  or  there  may  be  a  consider- 
able number.  The  superficial  ones  become  ulcerated,  and 
there  may  be  a  great  deal  of  new  tissue  formed  in  the  organ. 
The  lesion,  especially  in  the  disseminated  form,  is  very  like 


FIG.  13. — Muscular  tuberculosis  in  the  hind 
quarter  of  a  pig. — V. 


that  of  actinomycosis.  A  microscopic  examination  is  necessary 
to  establish  the  diagnosis. 

Skin.— In  animals  the  skin  seldom  shows  tuberculous 
lesions.  Probably  it  is  infected  in  every  case  by  local  inocula- 
tion. Sometimes  tuberculous  fibrous  tumours  are  found 
under  the  skin  of  the  ox. 

The  Editor  has  met  with  several  cases  of  cutaneous  tuber- 
culosis in  the  subtarsal  and  subcarpal  regions  of  the  ox.  One 
or  more  limbs  may  be  affected,  usually  the  fore  ones ;  only  in 
one  case  were  all  four  diseased. 

The  lesion  extends  from  the  pit  of  the  heel  to  just  below 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  103 

the  carpus  or  tarsus.  The  subcutaneous  tissue  is  much  in- 
creased, and  there  may  or  may  not  be  abscesses  on  the  course 
of  the  swelling. 

The  danger  arising  from  the  ingestion  of  tubercle-infected 
butcher  meat.—  Long  before  the  discovery  of  the  tubercle 
bacillus— as  far  back  as  1839— Malin  reported  cases  of  infection 
in  dogs  by  way  of  *the  alimentary  tract.  The  subject,  however, 
received  little  consideration  until  nearly  thirty  years  later, 
when  the  work  of  Chauveau  and  that  of  Gerlach  appeared. 
The  large  number  of  confirmatory  experiments  and  the  ob- 
servations since  collected  make  it  impossible  to  doubt  that 
tuberculosis  can  be  contracted  by  ingestion  of  infected  tissue. 
Ingestion,  however,  is  not  the  easiest  method  of  infecting  an 
animal  with  tuberculosis.  In.  the  majority  of  cases  a  large 
number  of  bacilli  must  be  swallowed  before  a  positive  result 
is  obtained.  That  the  bacilli  can  penetrate  by  way  of  the 
buccal  and  pharyngeal  mucous  membrane  seems  certain. 
It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  tuberculous  lesions  on 
the  gastric  mucous  membrane  are  rare,  but  as  they  are  not 
unknown,  one  must  admit  the  possibility  of  invasion  by  way 
of  the  stomach.  Straus  and  Wurtz  showed  that  tubercle  bacilli 
resist  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  for  eighteen  hours.  Stern 
has  demonstrated  that  the  intestinal  juices  have  no  effect  on 
them. 

Apart  from  the  experimental  evidence,  which  has  already 
been  referred  to,  the  number  of  cases  of  natural  infection  in 
which  bowel  lesions  are  present  prove  beyond  doubt  that  under 
certain  circumstances  penetration  by  way  of  the  intestinal 
mucous  membrane  is  not  difficult.  As  already  mentioned, 
a  relatively  large  number  of  bacilli  are  necessary  to  experi- 
mentally infect  healthy  animals  by  this  method  ;  but  it  seems 
probable  that,  if  the  mucous  membrane  be  not  intact,  a  smaller 
quantity  would  suffice. 

Since  the  possibility  of  infection  by  ingestion  is  undeniable, 
the  important  question  to  the  Meat  Inspector  comes  to  be, 
under  what  circumstances  do  the  conditions  obtain  which 


1 04  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

are  likely  to  render  meat  dangerous  ?  This  question  has 
already  been  dealt  with  in  great  part  in  the  paragraphs  on 
infection  of  the  organs.  It  remains  only  to  indicate  what 
experiment  has  taught  us  regarding  the  extent  of  the  danger. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  in  detail  the  results  obtained  by 
the  large  number  of  experimenters  who  have  investigated 
this  subject.  The  plan  of  operation  has  been  the  same  in  all. 

Animals  have  been  fed  on  flesh  from  tuberculous  car- 
cases, or  inoculated  with  the  juice  expressed  from  the  muscles. 
In  those  cases  in  which  the  experimenters  were  careful  to 
avoid  all  chance  of  the  juice  or  flesh  being  contaminated  from 
outside  sources,  the  number  of  positive  results  obtained  with 
ox  flesh  is  exceedingly  small,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in 
many  cases  the  carcases  supplying  the  material  for  experiment 
were  those  of  animals  affected  with  generalised  tuberculosis. 
Nocard  and  M'Fadyean  have  both  shown  that  the  bacilli  dis- 
appear from  the  muscles  in  a  very  short  time  after  a  large 
number  of  bacilli  have  been  injected  into  the  blood  stream. 
The  second  series  of  experiments  by  Kastner  call  for  remark, 
for  he  obtained  twelve  positive  results  out  of  fourteen  guinea- 
pigs.  Kastner,  however,  does  not  say  that  the  cases  from 
which  he  obtained  the  flesh  were  not  those  of  generalised 
tuberculosis,  nor  does  he  mention  the  regions  of  the  body 
which  supplied  the  muscle.  He  says  that  the  flesh  used  was 
from  confiscated  carcases. 

Nobody  desires  to  pass  for  food  the  flesh  of  generalised 
cases,  but  in  localised  cases  the  region  experimented  with  is 
worthy  of  consideration.  It  is  unlikely  that  any  one  who  has 
followed  the  recent  work  on  this  subject  will  deny  the  pro- 
bability of  the  bacilli  being  in  the  muscles  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  localised  lesions,  especially  if  the  latter  be  in  the  glands. 
Thus  Graltier  found  that  in  a  tuberculous  cow  muscle  from 
the  thigh  was  non-virulent,  while  that  from  the  shoulder 
gave  a  positive  result.  Veyssiere  and  Humbert  obtained  two 
positive  results  with 'the  psose  muscles  of  a  tuberculous  cow  ; 
but  every  one  knows  that  the  glands  in  the  lumbar  region  are 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  105 

often  diseased.  In  a  case  of  tuberculosis  of  the  pig,  in  which 
the  anterior  glands  and  some  of  the  muscles  of  one  fore-limb 
showed  marked  lesions,  the  Editor  failed  to  obtain  a  positive 
result  in  four  guinea-pigs  inoculated  with  juice  expressed 
from  the  muscles  of  the  hind  quarters.  The  experiments 
performed  with  the  flesh  of  animals  other  than  the  ox  are 
much  fewer  in  number,  but  the  proportion  of  positive  results 
has  been  larger. 

Working  with  the  flesh  of  the  sheep  (generalised  case) 
Gerlach  obtained  two  positive  results  in  two  pigs  experimented 
011  by  the  ingestioii  method. 

By  inoculating  the  muscle-juice  of  the  pig  to  two  rabbits 
Toussaint  obtained  two  positive  results,  Gunther  and  Harms 
two  positive  results  with  four  rabbits,  and  Gerlach  two  positive 
out  of  four  rabbits  inoculated. 

Peuch  had  three  positive  results  with  three  rabbits  inocul- 
ated with  the  muscle-juice  of  a  fowi  dead  of  tuberculosis. 

Inspection.—  There  are  no  uniform  rules  regarding  the 
inspection  of  tuberculous  carcases  in  this  country.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  any  procedure  adopted  by  Meat  Inspectors  must 
be  based  on  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  pathology  of 
the  disease.  In  the  foregoing  sections  the  pathological  points 
of  interest  to  the  inspector  have  been  dealt  with.  It  remains 
now  to  point  out  a  line  of  procedure  deduced  from  them. 

All  authorities  agree  in  condemning  affected  organs,  lesions, 
and  emaciated  carcases,  whatever  be  the  degree  of  tuberculosis. 
The  other  cases  that  one  seeks  to  exclude  from  consumption 
are— (1)  those  in  which  generalisation  has  taken  place,  for 
the  muscles  may  then  be  assumed  to  contain  bacilli ;  (2)  those 
in  which  the  glands  embedded  in  the  muscles  are  invaded, 
although  the  tuberculosis  is  still  local.  The  difference  of  opinion 
comes  in  when  we  have  to  determine  what  constitutes  evidence 
of  generalisation,  and  under  what  circumstances  the  glands 
of  a  given  region  may  contain  the  bacilli,  because  it  has  already 
been  explained  that  they  may  do  so  without  showing  any 
macroscopic  tubercles. 


1 06  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Signs  of  generalisation.  — In  the  ox,  generalisation  is  not 
common  ;  it  occurs  more  frequently  in  pigs,  and  it  is  always 
secondary  to  a  local  lesion. 

When  an  acute  miliary  lesion  is  present  in  any  organ,  unless 
it  be  in  the  liver  only,  generalisation  may  be  assumed  to  have 
taken  place.  To  the  inspector  the  important  point  about 
generalisation  is,  of  course,  that  the  bacilli  are  likely  to  be  in 
the  muscles  and  their  glands.  When  the  bacilli  enter  a  vein 
or  small  artery,  they  go  to  the  right  heart  and  thence  to  the 
lungs,  where  most  of  them  are  retained.  One  could  imagine 
that,  when  an  artery  is  penetrated,  the  bacilli  might  be  arrested 
in  its  capillary  branches  and  give  rise  to  embolic  lesions  in  the 
organ  supplied.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  the  most  im- 
portant result  of  contamination  of  the  blood  stream— the 
presence  of  bacilli  in  the  muscular  system— does  not  follow. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  an  analogous  condition  may  be  produced 
in  the  liver,  when  bacilli  enter  a  branch  of  the  portal  vein. 

True  generalisation,  then,  means  that  the  baccilli  have  in 
one  of  the  ways  before  mentioned  passed  in  and  out  of  the 
left  heart.  One  or  two  cases  are  reported  where  tubercles 
were  found  on  the  aorta.  The  blood,  stream  might,  of  course, 
be  contaminated  from  such  lesions. 

The  evidence  of  post-mortem  examinations  goes  to  show 
that  in  the  majority  of  cases,  at  least,  the  bacilli  which  reach 
the  left  heart  do  so  by  passing  through  the  pulmonary  capil- 
laries. Since  a  large  number  are  retained  in  the  lung,  it  is 
that  organ  which  furnishes  us  with  the  most  constant  proof 
of  generalisation. 

The  task  of  the  inspector  is  more  difficult  when  dealing 
with  carcases  which  are  in  the  second  category  ;  that  is,  when 
he  has  to  determine  in  a  case  of  localised  tuberculosis  whether 
the  glands  of  this  or  that  part  are  likely  to  contain  bacilli. 
It  is  out  of  the  question  to  expect  to  have  a  corps  of  inspectors 
sufficiently  large  to  make  a  searching  examination  of  all  the 
glands  in  the  neighbourhood  of  tuberculous  lesions.  One 
must  try  rather  to  proceed  along  the  lines  of  a  fair  and  practic- 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  107 

able  compromise,  but  the  benefit  of  a  doubt  must  always  be 
accorded  to  the  consumer.  Under  a  system  of  this  kind,  a 
good  deal  of  harmless  flesh  will  be  withdrawn  from  consump- 
tion, but  the  expense  of  inspecting  it  minutely  would  amount 
to  more  than  the  value  of  the  meat. 

From  what  has  been  said  regarding  infection  of  the  different 
organs  and  the  progression  of  the  lesion,  it  follows  that  tubercle 
may  spread  from  the  peritoneum  to  the  sublumbar  and  inguinal 
glands.  Tuberculosis  of  the  peritoneum,  then,  will  entail 
seizure  of  the  carcase  posterior  to,  and  including  the  diaphragm. 
When  tuberculous  lesions  exist  on.  the  pleura  or  in  the  anterior 
glands,  the  fore-part  of  the  carcase,  including  the  diaphragm, 
will  be  condemned. 

The  last  Koyal  Commission  on  Tuberculosis,  in  their  report 
published  in  1898,  issued  the  following  recommendations 
regarding  the  carcases  of  tuberculous  animals :  — 

"  C.— TUBERCULOSIS  IN  ANIMALS  INTENDED  FOR  FOOD. 

"  6.  We  recommend  that  the  Local  Government  Board  be  empowered  to  issue 
instructions  from  time  to  time  for  the  guidance  of  Meat  Inspectors,  prescribing 
the  degree  of  tubercular  disease  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board,  should  cause 
a  carcase,  or  part  thereof,  to  be  seized. 

"Pending  the  issue  of  such  instructions,  we  are  of  opinion  that  the  following 
principles  should  be  observed  in  the  inspection  of  tuberculous  carcases  of  cattle  : — 


"  (a)  When  there  is  miliary  tuberculosis  of  both  lungs ." 
"  (b)  When  tuberculous    lesions  are  present  on    the 
pleura  and  peritoneum   .... 


"(c)  When    tuberculous   lesions    are   present  m    the  ,    „  ., 

,  .     ,,      ,    r   ,    , .       ,      ,    V     and  all  the  organs 

muscular  system,  or  in  the  lymphatic  glands 


embedded  in  or  between  the  muscles     . 
;  (d)  When  tuberculous  lesions  exist  in  any  part  of 
an  emaciated  carcase 


The    entire    carcase 


may  be  seized. 


"(a)  When  the  lesions  are  confined  to  the  lungs  and \  The  carcase,  if 

the  thoracic  lymphatic  glands  .  .  .  otherwisehealthy, 

"  (6)  When  the  lesions  are  confined  to  the  liver  .  shall  not  be  con- 

"  (c)  When  the  lesions  are  confined  to  the  pharyngeal  I  demned,but  every 

lymphatic  glands  .  .  .  .  /  part  of  it  contain- 

"(d)  When  the  lesions  are  confined  to  any  combination  ing  tuberculous 

of  the  foregoing,  but  are  collectively  small  in  I  lesions  shall  be 

extent  .  .  .  .  .  .  /  seized. 


io8  MEAT  INSPECTION 

"In  view  of  the  greater  tendency  to  generalisation  of  tuberculosis  in  the 
pig,  we  consider  that  the  presence  of  tubercular  deposit  in  any  degree  should 
involve  seizure  of  the  whole  carcase  and  of  the  organs. 

"In  respect  of  foreign  dead  meat,  seizure  shall  ensue  in  every  case  where 
the  pleurae  have  been  'stripped.'  " 

These  recommendations,  if  adopted,  are  calculated  to  reduce 
to  the  vanishing-point  any  risk  which  people  run  of  contract- 
ing tuberculosis  from  eating  the  flesh  of  tuberculous  animals. 
They  will  also  considerably  lessen  the  hardship  inflicted  on  the 
butcher  in  those  places  where  the  inspection  resolves  itself 
practically  into  total  seizure.  In  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge it  would  be  hardly  possible  to  issue  instructions  much 
less  general  in  character,  but  if  the  inspector  be  a  properly 
qualified  man,  with  a  knowledge  of  pathology,  he  will  have 
little  difficulty  in  applying  them  rationally. 

No  part  of  the  stomach  or  intestines  should  be  passed  for 
the  manufacture  of  tripe,  haggis,  or  sausages,  when  lesions  exist 
on  the  abdominal  organs. 

The  Editor  has  on  one  occasion  found  a  tuberculous  thicken- 
ing on  a  piece  of  dressed  tripe. 

Inspectors  should  impress  on  butchers  the  necessity  of 
cleansing  their  knives  which  have  been  employed  to  cut  lesions, 
before  they  again  use  them  for  dressing  purposes. 


BACTERIAL  PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS 

The  name  is  applied  to  more  than  one  bacterial  disease  in 
which  the  lesions  somewhat  resemble  those  of  tuberculosis. 
The  bacterial  pseudotuberculoses  are  seldom  met  with  in  the 
abattoirs  of  this  country. 

Animals  affected.  — Since  1883,  when  Malassez  and  Vignal 
first  described  a  pseudotuberculosis  —  tuberculose  zoogloeique— 
which  they  produced  experimentally  in  animals  by  inoculating 
a  microbe  obtained  from  a  nodule  on  the  arm  of  a  child, 
many  others  have  described  similar  diseases  in  the  differ  en  t 
animals. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  109 

It  has  been  recorded  in  man,  the  hare,  rabbit,  sheep,  horse, 
cow,  and  calf.  Nocard  described  similar  lesions  in  the  fowl, 
but  in  a  later  paper  he  showed  that  the  fowl  was  refractory 
to  inoculation  with  the  ordinary  pseudotuberculosis  cultures. 
The  Editor  is  able  to  confirm  the  latter  statement  from  personal 
experience.  The  disease  is  sometimes  met  with  in  cage-birds 
and  in  pigeons.  The  several  investigators  who  have  made 
a  comparative  study  of  the  pseudotuberculosis  described  by 
different  authors,  have  concluded  that  the  majority  are  due 
to  the  same  microbe— a  streptobacillus. 


FIG.  14. — Bacillus  of  pseudotuberculosis.      x  1000. — K.  M. 

From  lesions  resembling  those  of  tuberculosis  on  the  pleura 
of  an  ox,  Courmont  isolated  a  bacillus  somewhat  different  from 
the  others,  which  could  give  rise  to  characteristic  tubercles 
when  inoculated  to  rabbits  and  guinea-pigs. 

Preiz  and  Guinard  described  a  pseudotuberculosis  in  a  sheep, 
which  Nocard  showed  to  be  due  to  the  bacillus  described  by  him 
as  the  cause  of  "  la  lymphangite  pseudofarcineuse."  Cherry 
and  Bull  have  recently  described  a  pseudotuberculosis  in  sheep 
in  Australia.  They  say  that  in  some  flocks  as  many  as  from 


1 1  o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

15  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  animals  are  affected.  The  lesions  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  glands.  Cherry  and  Bull  seem  to  think 
that  they  have  investigated  the  same  disease  as  Preiz. 

Vallee  has  reported  another  form  which  attacked  calves 
aged  from  eight  to  fifteen  days.  In  the  latter  disease  the  lesions 
were  confined  to  the  liver,  and  may  possibly  have  been  of  um- 
bilical origin. 

The  microbes.— The  streptobacillus  is  a  small  oval  rod  measur- 
ing 1  x  •  3  p.  The  elements  are  arranged  in  chains  or  zoogloea 
masses.  It  can  be  stained  by  the  methyl-blue  preparations. 

The  bacillus  of  Courmont  is  short  and  slightly  constricted 
in  the  middle.  It  does  not  form  chains,  and  it  stains  by  the 
aniline  dyes. 

The  microbe  of  Vallee  is  a  bacillus  smaller  than  the  Bacillus 
tuberculosis.  It  occurs  as  single  rods  or  in  masses.  It  stains  by 
Gram's  method  or  by  the  other  bacterial  stains. 

Lesions.— The  lesions  caused  by  the  streptobacillus  are  in 
the  form  of  small  disseminated  abscesses  varying  in  size  from 
a  hemp-seed  to  a  pea.  The  larger  and  older  ones  are  necrotic 
in  the  centre,  which  is  whitish  in  colour  and  of  the  consistence 
of  firm  caseous  material.  The  microbes  are  found  in  the 
younger  nodules,  but  not  in  the  older  ones.  The  microbe 
seems  to  have  a  great  tendency  to  invade  the  blood  stream, 
and  the  lesions  may  be  found  in  almost  any  organ.  Histo- 
logically  the  nodules  are  made  up  of  leucocytes ;  no  giant  cells 
are  present,  and  in  the  younger  growths  masses  of  bacilli  are 
found  in  the  small  vessels.  Courmont  described  the  lesions 
in  his  case  as  typical  tubercles. 

The  lesions  described  by  Valle*e  in  the  livers  of  calves  are 
small  white  nodules,  which  never  exceed  a  millet-seed  in  size. 
Histologically  they  are  similar  to  those  caused  by  the  strepto- 
bacillus. 

Inspection.— Lignieres  has  found  the  streptobacillus  in  the 
muscles  of  experimental  animals  dead  of  pseudotuberculosis. 
It  is  also  known  that  animals  can  be  infected  by  way  of  the 
alimentary  track,  that  the  bacillus  has  a  great  tendency  to 


PLATE  vm 


Actinomycosis  organism. 

1.  Colony  of  clubs  (ray  fungus). 

2.  Isolated  coccus  elements,  rods,  threads, 

and  clubs  (M'Fadyean). 


Head  of  Hen,  with  mouth  open,  showing  lesions  of  avian  diphtheria. 

a.  False  membrane. 

b.  An  ulcerous  area. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  in 

invade  the  blood  stream,  and  that  man  is  susceptible  to  the 
disease.  On  these  grounds,  total  seizure  of  the  entire  carcase 
of  an  infected  animal  is  advisable,  unless  the  lesions  be  confined 
to  one  organ. 

Too  little  is  known  about  the  other  diseases  described  by 
Courmont  and  Valle'e  to  enable  one  to  discuss  inspection  in 
relation  to  them. 

Probably  seizure  of  the  lesions  would  meet  the  case. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS 

Actinomycosis  is  a  disease  due  to  the  actinomyces. 

Animals  affected.— The  disease  is  most  commonly  met  with  in 
the  ox.  The  pig  in  this  country  is  much  less  frequently  affected. 
One  or  two  isolated  cases  have  been  recorded  in  the  sheep  and 
horse.  Man  may  also  be  attacked. 

The  actinomyces,— The  parasite  is  usually. found  in  animals 
in  the  form  of  colonies,  known  as  the  ray  fungus.  That, 
however,  is  not  the  only  form. 

In  an  earlier  stage  the  colonies  consist  of  coccus  forms,  which 
are  sometimes  arranged  in  chains,  and  of  bacillary  and  thread- 
like elements.  The  actinomyces  is  not  a  good  parasite,— in  the 
tissues  it  tends  to  lose  its  vitality,  and  it  then  assumes  involution 
forms  (clubs).  The  ends  of  the  filaments  swell  into  club-like 
bodies,  and  the  colonies  assume  the  form  known  as  the  ray 
fungus.  The  threads  radiate  from  a  centre,  and  when  a  section 
is  made  of  a  ray-fungus  colony  in  the  tissues,  it  has  an  appear- 
ance which  has  been  aptly  enough  compared  to  the  capitulum 
of  a  daisy.  The  central  threads,  however,  are  usually  de- 
generated. 

It  is  of  interest  to  the  inspector  to  know  that  the  parasite 
is  usually  found  in  the  above  degenerated  form  in  animals, 
because  in  that  state  it  cannot  be  inoculated  to  others. 

The  club  forms  can  be  well  seen  without  any  previous  stain- 
ing, but  they  can  be  nicely  stained  by  Plaut's  method.  The 
other  elements  stain  by  Gram's  method. 


1 1 2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Lesions.— Most  frequently  the  lesions  appear  as  greyish, 
firm  nodules  about  the  size  of  a  barley  grain.  On  cutting  into 
these,  one  sees  a  small  greenish  yellow  centre  of  softer  material. 
This  softened  centre,  however,  may  be  absent ;  it  may  be  as  large 
as  a  threepenny  piece  and  quite  caseous;  sometimes  it  is  brownish 
yellow  in  colour,  and  very  like  a  tuberculous  nodule.  It  is  seldom 
purulent  in  the  liquid  sense.  The  lesion,  again,  may  take  the 
form  of  a  fibrous  tumour  known  as  an  actinomycoma.  Many 
of  the  latter  show  no  softened  centres  whatever,  and  it  is  only 
on  making  a  microscopic  examination  that  the  true  nature 
of  the  growth  is  discovered.  These  tumours  are  generally 
found  growing  from  the  buccal  mucous  membrane  or  on  the 
skin  of  the  ox.  An  important  point  about  the  actinomycosis 
lesion  is,  that  it  is  almost  always  associated  with  a  considerable 
fibrous  proliferation  in  an  organ ;  and  this  is  one  point  of  dis- 
tinction between  it  and  tuberculosis.  Histologically  the  nodules 
consist  of  leucocytes,  epithelioid  cells,  and  in  the  older  cases 
a  more  or  less  fibrous  periphery.  There  may  or  may  not  be 
giant  cells  present ;  they  are  never  so  numerous  as  in 
the  tubercular  nodule.  One  or  two  colonies  of  the  parasite 
are  found  embedded  in  the  cells ;  but  when  the  nodule  is  large, 
they,  along  with  the  cellular  centres,  generally  fall  out  of 
sections  cut  on  the  freezing  microtome.  Calcareous  granules 
are  sometimes  present. 

Actinomycosis  of  the  organs,  and  infection.— Primary  in- 
fection takes  place  usually  by  way  of  the  alimentary  tract,  and 
it  is  due  to  the  ingestion  of  contaminated  fodder.  The  parasite 
apparently  reaches  the  tissues  through  wounds  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth.  It  may  also  occur  from  inhalation 
of  contaminated  dust,  or  the  parasite  may  penetrate  the 
mammary  gland  by  way  of  the  teats.  Any  external  wound 
may  serve  as  a  port  of  entrance.  The  fibrous  tumour  (known 
as  scirrhous  cord)  which  is  found  011  the  end  of  the  spermatic 
cord  of  the  ox,  is  caused  by  the  entrance  of  the  actinomyces 
by  the  wound  of  castration.  Once  in  the  tissues,  the  infection 
may  travel  by  way  of  the  lymph  stream  to  neighbouring  parts ; 


PLATE  ix. 


Portion  of  Tongue  of  Ox,  showing  the  Lesions  of  Actiuomycosis. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  113 

but,  on  the  whole,  the  lesion  tends  to  remain  local.  Generalisa- 
tion is  almost  unknown  in  animals. 

The  organ  most  frequently  affected  in  the  ox  is  the  tongue, 
but  commonly  enough  the  lesions  are  found  in  the  bones  of  the 
jaw  and  the  muscles  of  the  cheek  in  contact  with  the  bones. 
The  pharyngeal  glands  are  also  pretty  frequently  affected.  The 
other  organs,  such  as  the  lungs,  liver,  bowel,  mammary  gland, 
etc.,  may  show  lesions.  In  the  pig,  muscular  actinomycosis  is 
said  to  be  fairly  common  in  some  parts  of  Germany ;  but  if  we 
exclude  the  cases  in  which  the  tongue  and  the  cheek  muscles 
are  affected,  the  lesion  must  be  of  rare  occurrence  in  this  country. 
The  parts  most  often  diseased  in  the  pig  are  the  tongue,  tonsils, 
and  mammary  gland.  The  infrequency  of  generalised  lesions 
is  probably  explained  by  the  feebly  parasitic  propensity  of  the 
actinomyces.  Only  one  or  two  cases  of  generalisation  have 
been  recorded.  The  lesions  were  situated  in  the  lungs,  liver, 
glands,  and  muscles. 

Tongue.— The  tongue  is  increased  in  size,  and  very  fibrous 
if  the  disease  has  existed  for  any  time  (wooden  tongue).  The 
nodules  are  found  on  the  sides  and  dorsum,  usually  about  the 
upper  third  of  the  organ.  Generally  they  are  confined  to  the 
more  superficial  parts.  The  larger  nodules  on  the  surface  tend 
to  ulcerate  and  give  rise  to  a  superficial  sore.  Fibrous  tumours 
may  be  found  in  connection  with  the  lips  and  palate. 

Oesophagus,  stomach,  and  intestines.— These  organs  may  be 
infected  directly  by  ingested  material,  but  actinomycosis  lesions 
are  rarely  found  in  them.  The  lesion  is  in  the  form  of  ulcers 
and  nodules  which  often  attain  to  considerable  size. 

Liver  and  other  abdominal  organs.— In  this  country  these 
organs  are  seldom  found  affected,  and  little  is  known  about 
the  manner  of  invasion.  Probably  the  liver  is  invaded  by  way 
of  the  portal  vessels  from  the  bowel.  The  nodules,  when  present 
in  the  liver,  are  softened  in  the  central  part  and  fibrous  at  the 
periphery.  The  organ  is  also  cirrhotic. 

Lungs.— The  lungs  are  infected  directly  by  the  inhalation 
of  contaminated  dust.  Once  a  lesion  is  started,  the  other  parts 


1 1 4  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

may  be  invaded  much  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of 
tuberculosis,  except  that  wide-spread  actinomycosis  lesions  are 
very  uncommon.  The  nodules  are  usually  discrete,  fibrous  at 
their  periphery,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  considerable 
stretch  of  lung  tissue.  In  some  cases,  however,  certain  areas 
show  many  soft  and  confluent  nodules,  similar  to  what  one 
finds  in  tuberculous  broncho-pneumonia. 

Serous  membranes.— They  are  not  often  invaded.  Nodules 
varying  in  size  from  a  small  pea  to  a  nut  are  found  on  their 
surfaces. 


FIG.  15. — Superior  maxilla  of  ox,  actinomycosis. 

Bones.  —  The  bones  most  frequently  affected  are  the 
superior  and  inferior  maxillse.  They  are  invaded  primarily 
through  wounds  into  the  alveoli,  or  secondarily  by  way  of  the 
lymph  stream  from  lesions  in  the  mouth  or  on  the  cheeks. 
The  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  and  the  ribs  are  also  sometimes 
attacked,— probably  the  infection  is  in  their  case  by  the  lymph 
stream  from  a  diseased  gland. 

The  bones  are  swollen,  carious,  and  rarefied .  The  bones  of  the 
jaw  are  often  perforated  by  cloacae,  from  which  pus  issues.  The 
tissues  round  about  are  swollen  and  show  nodules. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  115 

Glands.— The}7  are  infected  from  lesions  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. At  first  they  are  enlarged  and  oedematous,  but 
show  no  macroscopic  nodules.  Later  they  are  much  increased 
in  size,  and  show  softened  centres. 

Muscles.— When  lesions  exist  in  the  muscles,  infection  has 
probably  taken  place  from  the  skin  or  glands  by  the  lymph 
stream.  Infection  by  the  blood  stream  is  rare.  The  inter- 
muscular  fibrous  tissue  is  much  increased  at  the  expense  of  the 
muscle  fibres;  softened  centres— cold  abscesses— are  seen  in 
the  iiewr  tissue. 

Skin.— The  lesion  is  in  the  form  of  a  fibrous  tumour,  which 
sometimes  suppurates.  In  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
regions  of  the  ox  the  actiiiomyces  may  cause  a  lesion  similar 
to  those  described  under  tuberculosis. 

Mammary  gland.  —  The  situation  of  the  lesions  in  the 
gland  points  usually  to  an  invasion  by  way  of  the  teats.  The 
lesion  is  more  common  than  one  generally  admits.  In  three 
of  four  cases  examined  by  the  Editor,  the  nodules  were  situated 
in  one  quarter,  and  they  were  most  numerous  towards  the 
base  of  the  teat.  In  the  fourth  case  the  whole  gland  was 
more  or  less  invaded. 

The  gland  is  very  cirrhotic  and  difficult  to  cut. 

The  nodules  are  so  like  those  of  tuberculosis,  that  a  micro- 
scopical examination  is  necessary  to  establish  the  diagnosis. 
The  hardness  of  the  gland,  the  situation  of  the  nodules,  and 
the  absence  of  lesions  in  other  organs,  should  always  make  one 
suspect  actinomycosis. 

The  Editor  has  met  with  one  case  of  mammary  actiiiomycosis 
(cow)  in  which  tuberculosis  was  present  in  the  internal  organs. 

Inspection.— The  records  of  comparative  medicine  do  not 
furnish  us  with  any  proof  that  actiiiomycosis  is  communicated 
from  animals  to  human  beings.  The  state  of  the  parasite  as  it 
is  usually  found  in  animals  renders  it  unlikely  that  the  disease 
in  man  is  ever  due  to  ingestioii  of  butcher  meat.  Still  one  must 
admit  a  possibility  of  infection  in  this  way,  and  even  the  least 
aesthetic  would  hardly  care  to  eat  parts  containing  the  lesions. 


1 1 6  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

The  carcase  will  be  seized  in  entirety  when  there  are  lesions 
in  several  parts  of  the  muscular  system  and  when  it  is  much 
emaciated,  as  it  may  be  in  the  ox  if  the  tongue  and  jaws  are 
diseased.  If  the  flesh  be  of  good  quality,  the  carcase  may  be 
passed  after  the  parts  containing  lesions  have  been  removed. 

GLANDERS 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  caused  by  the  bacillus  of  glanders 
—the  Bacillus  mallei. 

Animals  affected.— Glanders  is  almost  exclusively  a  disease 
of  the  horse  tribe,  and  on  this  account  it  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance to  British  Meat  Inspectors.  Human  beings  certainly 
contract  the  disease  ;  but  it  must  seldom  happen  that  they  do  so 
by  eating  glandered  flesh  or  organs. 

Bovine  animals  are  absolutely  refractory  to  glanders.  If 
virulent  material  be  injected  under  the  skin  of  an  ox,  the  only 
result  is  a  small  abscess,  which  remains  local.  According  to 
Peuchu,  sheep  can  be  inoculated  locally.  They  may  even  be 
affected  with  clinical  glanders  after  inoculation,  but  they  never 
take  the  disease  naturally. 

Pigs  never  contract  glanders  by  the  natural  methods  of 
infection,  and  they  are  almost  absolutely  refractory  to  experi- 
mental inoculation. 

Goats  have  been  infected  by  cohabitation  with  glandered 
horses  (Nbcard).  The  dog  shows  only  a  local  lesion  after 
inoculation ;  but  the  cat  may  die  of  glanders  under  the  same 
circumstances. 

The  microbe.— The  bacillus  is  rod-like,  and  measures  from 
3  to  5  //,  by  about  1.  Many  of  the  rods  when,  stained  show  a 
number  of  small  and  closely  set  uncoloured  parts,  which  give 
the  bacillus  a  granular  appearance.  The  extremities  of  the  rod 
are  rounded.  They  may  be  stained  by  Loffler's  or  Kuhne's 
blues;  diluted  carbol-fuchsin  also  suits  very  well.  Cover-glass 
preparations  should  be  washed  in  water  only,  as  the  bacilli  are 
not  very  retentive  of  the  stains.  Preparations  can  be  obtained 


PLATE  XI 


Group  of  Glanders  Ulcers  on  Inner  Surface  of  Anterior  and  Upper  Part 
of  Nostril  of  Horse. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  117 

from  the  soft  material  of  the  nodules ;  but,  except  in  acute 
cases,  the  microbes  are  very  few  in  number,  so  few  that  it  is 
seldom  possible  to  demonstrate  their  presence  with  the  micro- 
scope. 

Lesions.—  The  lesions  are  in  the  form  of  nodules  situated 
on  the  mucous  membranes  and  in  the  parenchyma  of  organs 
(glanders),  or  they  may  appear  in  the  superficial  lymphatics 
and  on  the  skin  (farcy).  Of  the  internal  organs,  the  lungs 
and  their  covering  are  most  frequently  the  site  of  lesions  ;  indeed, 
the  nodules  are  often  confined  to  the  lungs.  The  superficial 
lesions  are  found  most  often  on  the  Schneiderian  mucous  mem- 
brane covering  the  septum  nasi,  and  on  the  skin. 

Septum  nasi.— The  nodules  here  are  in  the  form  of  small 
papules  about  the  size  of  a  lentil-seed.     There  may  be  only  a 
few   isolated   ones,  or   they   may 
be  present  in  groups  which  often 
merge  into    each    other.       They 
consist    of    dense    collections    of 
leucocytes  like  miliary  abscesses. 
The  membrane  softens  and  gives 
way  over  the  papule,  and  an  ulcer 
is  left.     The  ulcers  are  about  the 
size   of   a   split-pea ;    their    edges 
are  irregular  and  slightly  raised. 
Large  ulcerous  patches  of  an  inch 
or  two  in  length  may  be  formed     Fia  IQ.— Bacillus  mallei  in  pus 
by    confluence     of    the    smaller  (oil  immersion,  rV). 

ulcers.       A     mucopurulent    dis- 
charge, usually  odourless,  issues  from  the  membrane.      Similar 
patches  of  ulceration  are  sometimes  found  on  other  parts  of 
the  respiratory  passages. 

Lymph  glands.—  The  glands  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  lesions  are  often  swollen.  This  is  seen  especially  in  the 
submaxillary  lymphatics,  but  they  seldom  suppurate  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  although  their  enlargement  is  due 
at  first  to  accumulation  of  leucocytes.  After  a  time  new  fibrous 


1 1 8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

tissue  is  formed,  and  the  gland  becomes  hard.  Necrotic  patches 
may  be  found  in  the  gland  substance.  The  bronchial  glands 
are  seldom  increased  in  size. 

Lungs  and  pleura.— The  pleura  covering  the  superficial 
nodules  in  the  lung  is  often  thickened,  but  a  large  extent  of 
its  surface  may  be  swollen  and  opaque.  The  thickening  is  at 
first  due  to  distention  of  the  lymph  spaces ;  but  in  cases  of  long 
standing  it  is  due  to  the  formation  of  new  fibrous  tissue.  The 
lungs  show  nodules  in  their  substance,  some  of  which  feel  hard 
and  shot-like.  The  appearance  of  the  nodules  changes  somewhat 
with  their  age.  ^he  younger  ones  are  in  the  form  of  greyish  or 
yellowish  specks,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  pin-head  to  that  of 
a  split-pea .  They  are  usually  surrounded  by  a  red  zone.  The 
older  ones  range  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  nut.  Their  peripheral 
part  is  fibrous,  and  the  central  part  is  either  purulent  or  caseous. 
Sometimes  they  are  calcareous.  The  distribution  of  the  nodules 
is  very  irregular.  There  may  be  only  two  or  three  present  in 
one  lung,  or  there  may  be  over  a  hundred  in  the  two  portions. 
The  latter  characters  help  one  to  distinguish  glanders  from 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  in  the  horse ;  for  in  the  latter  case 
the  lesion  is  almost  always  an  acute  miliary  one,  and  the 
tubercles  are  so  numerous  and  evenly  distributed  that  they 
give  to  the  lungs  a  solid  appearance  throughout.  In  some 
cases  of  glanders  the  lung  tissue  is  hepatised  over  areas 
the  size  of  one's  hand.  The  solidified  parts  are  of  a  dirty 
white  colour,  and  the  interlobular  septa  are  much  widened. 
In  acute  cases  both  lungs  may  be  almost  completely  hepatised. 
The  latter  form  is  commonly  seen  in  the  ass,  but  it  is  rare 
in  the  horse. 

In  chronic  cases  there  is  frequently  a  considerable  amount 
of  new  fibrous  tissue  formed  under  the  pleura  and  in  the  lung 
substance. 

The  microscope  shows  that  the  youngest  tubercles  begin 
as  a  collection  of  leucocytes.  These  look  like  miliary  abscesses, 
and  they  obscure  the  alveolar  walls.  The  capillary  vessels  of 
the  air  cells  round  about  them  are  crammed  with  white  cells, 


PLATE  x 


Septum  Nasi  Glanders. 


BA  CTERIAL  DISEASES  j  1 9 

and  the  alveoli  contain  a  fibrinous  material  and  leucocytes.  At 
a  later  stage,  round  and  angular  epithelioid  cells  are  found  outside 
the  central  part,  and  one  or  two  giant  cells  may  be  seen  (M'Fad- 
yean,  Schutz).  The  giant  cells,  however,  are  not  so  numerous 
as  in  the  true  tubercle.  The  air  cells  at  the  outermost  part  of 
the  nodule  contain  a  croupous  exudate— fibrin,  leucocytes,  and 
red  cells. 


FIG.  17. — Microscopical  section  of  chronic  glanders  nodule. — 
M'FADYEAN. 


In  the  oldest  nodules  the  central  part  is  necrotic.  It  con- 
of  disintegrated  cells  and  chromatin  particles  (chromato- 
lysis) ;  it  is  sometimes  calcareous.  The  peripheral  part  is 
fibrous. 

In  the  large  hepatised  areas  the  alveolar  vessels  are  distended 
by  leucocytes,  and  their  cavities  contain  a  dense  fibrinous  exudate. 

The  walls  of  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  lesion  are  densely  infiltrated  by  round  cells,  and 
their  epithelium  is  in  a  state  of  catarrh. 


1 2  o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

In  the  lungs  of  the  horse,  circumscribed  fibro-cellular 
nodules,  which  are  caused  by  a  worm,  are  sometimes  found. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  These  might  be  mistaken 
for  glanders  tubercles.  The  microscope,  however,  shows  that 
the  lesion  has  had  its  starting-point  in  a  vessel  of  considerable 
size.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  chronic  arteritis,  and  the  worm,  which  is 
generally  calcined,  can  sometimes  be  seen.  Most  of  the  cells 
in  the  centre  are  still  intact ;  many  of  them  are  leucocytes  con- 
taining coarse  granules,  which  stain  with  eosin. 

Liver.  —The  liver  is  seldom  the  seat  of  lesions  in  the  horse. 
It  may,  however,  show  a  few  nodules  varying  in  size  from  a 
mere  speck  to  a  pea.  In  the  liver  of  a  lion  which  died  of  glanders, 
the  Editor  found  innumerable  miliary  abscesses  of  microscopic 
size.  They  contained  the  bacillus  mallei. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  may  show  nodules  like  those  found 
elsewhere. 

Intestines. —They  are  seldom  the  seat  of  lesions.  Schiitz, 
in  his  experimental  cases,  found  miliary  nodules  in  the  mucous 
membrane,  distension  of  the  lymphatic  vessels,  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  glands. 

Kidney.— This  organ  is  very  rarely  the  seat  of  glanderous 
lesions.  Nocard,  however,  has  recorded  two  cases  of  glanderous 
abscesses  in  the  kidney.  In  one  of  the  cases  the  other  lesions 
were  found  in  the  bowel  and  mesentery ;  the  lungs  were  intact. 
Lesions  have  also  been  described  in  the  testicles,  in  the  heart, 
and  in  the  bones.  In  the  latter  situation  glanders  bacilli 
give  rise  to  caries  and  sometimes  to  an  abscess.  The  lesions 
have  been  oftenest  described  in  connection  with  the  vertebrae 
and  ribs. 

Skin  (Farcy).— It  is  usually  the  skin  of  the  limbs  that  is 
affected,  but  similar  lesions  may  occur  on  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  nodules  generally  start  in  the  subcutaneous  tissue, 
and  they  elevate  the  skin  over  areas  about  the  size  of  a  three- 
penny piece.  The  skin  at  the  summit  becomes  softened  and 
yellowish  in  colour.  It  gives  way,  and  a  thick  lymph-like 
fluid  or  pus  is  discharged.  These  ulcers  are  most  numerously 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  121 

present  on  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  limbs.  The  lymphatic 
glands  and  vessels  are  swollen ;  the  latter  stand  out  on  the 
surfaces.  The  subcutaneous  tissue  is  distended  by  lymph, 
and  the  affected  limb  is  much  thickened. 

MTadyean  has  shown  that  the  so-called  Widal  reaction 
may  be  used  to  confirm  the  diagnosis  of  glanders  in  animals 
after  death,  but  the  delicacy  of  the  manipulations  necessary 
in  applying  this  test  renders  it  useless  except  in  skilled  hands. 
Glanders  bacilli,  removed  from  a  recent  potato  culture  by  means 
of  a  platinum  wire,  are  suspended  in  sterile  broth  or  normal  salt 
solution.  They  may  be  taken  directly  from  a  broth  culture. 

A  platinum  wire  loopful  of  the  above  fluid  is  placed  on  a  clean 
cover-glass,  and  to  it  is  added  an  equal  quantity  of  diluted  blood 
(or  serum)  from  the  suspected  case.  The  cover-glass  is  inverted 
on  a  concave  slide,  which  is  immediately  placed  under  the 
microscope.  When  a  dilution  of  glandered  blood  in  broth  or 
salt  solution  (1  in  9,  MTadyean)  is  added  to, an  equal  quantity 
of  broth  containing  the  microbes,  the  bacilli  form  into  little 
clumps  after  an  hour :  at  the  end  of  two  hours  the  clumping 
is  complete  all  over  the  preparation.  The  blood  of  a  healthy 
horse  also  causes  clumping;  but  in  the  latter  case  the 
phenomenon  is  less  marked,  and  requires  a  much  longer  time 
for  its  production. 

Bourges  and  Mery  obtained  clumping  in  three  cases  with 
a  dilution  of  blood  from  glandered  horses  equal  to  1  to  1000. 
In  one  case  they  obtained  it  with  a  dilution  of  1  to  2000.  They 
never  obtained  it  with  the  blood  of  a  non-glandered  horse  when 
the  dilution  was  more  than  1  to  300. 

Inspection.  —  The  question  as  to  whether  the  muscles  of 
glandered  animals  are  virulent  or  not  has  not  been  submitted 
to  the  same  amount  of  exhaustive  investigation  as  it  has  in 
the  case  of  tuberculosis ;  the  necessities  of  the  case  have  not 
demanded  it.  The  horse  is  practically  the  only  domesticated 
animal  which  naturally  contracts  glanders,  and  the  disease 
is  much  less  prevalent  than  tuberculosis  of  the  bovine  race. 
Moreover,  the  quantity  of  horse  flesh  used  for  human  food  is 


1 2  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

relatively  small,  and  the  value  of  the  carcase  is  such  that  total 
seizure  inflicts  no  great  hardship  on  the  owner.  The  blood 
of  glandered  horses,  even  in  acute  cases,  seldom  contains  the 
bacilli  in  sufficiently  large  numbers  to  render  it  dangerous, 
and,  so  far  as  jve  know  at  least,  the  flesh  itself  has  seldom  been 
found  virulent.  Still  the  glands  may  contain  bacilli,  and 
manipulation  of  the  carcase  is  not  unattended  with  danger. 

Menagerie  animals  have  been  known  to  contract  the  disease 
by  eating  the  flesh  of  glandered  horses ;  but  it  is  by  inoculation 
of  the  external  parts  that  human  beings  are  infected. 

The  provisions  of  The  Glanders  or  Farcy  Order,  1894, 
sec.  17,  fairly  meet  the  case.  They  compel  total  seizure  and 
destruction  of  every  part  of  a  horse,  ass,  or  mule  that  was 
diseased  at  the  time  when  it  died  or  was  slaughtered. 

DISEASES  CHARACTERISED  BY  SUPPURATION 

Suppuration  is  a  condition  produced  by  the  growth  of 
pyogenic  or  pus-producing  bacteria  in  the  tissues  of  a  living 
animal. 

Suppuration,  when  it  occurs  in  some  organs  of  the  body, 
receives  a  special  name,  which  in  a  text-book  of  medicine,  or 
even  in  one  of  pathology,  would  entitle  the  affection  in  each 
organ  to  a  special  chapter.  The  Editor  is  of  opinion,  however, 
that  in  a  book  on  meat  inspection  the  morbid  conditions 
characterised  by  suppuration  can  be  more  conveniently  and 
briefly  dealt  with  in  one  chapter. 

Animals  affected.—  Suppuration  may  occur  in  any  of  the 
domesticated  animals;  it  is,  in  fact,  of  everyday  occurrence. 

The  microbes.— Several  microbes  which  really  give  rise  to 
the  formation  of  pus,  such  as  the  tubercle  bacillus  and  the 
bacillus  of  glanders,  are  not  usually  classed  with  the  micro- 
organisms of  suppuration,  because  the  diseases  caused  by  the 
former  have  received  special  names. 

The  most  widely  distributed  pyogenic  microbes  are  the 
Streptococcus  of  strangles,  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus, 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  123 

the  Stapkylococcus  pyogenes  albus,  and  the  Streptococcus  pyo- 
genes.  It  is  usually  to  the  effects  of  the  latter  organisms 
that  the  term  suppuration  is  applied.  In  pus  of  a  bluish 
colour,  a  special  chromogeiiic  microbe— the  bacillus  of  blue 
pus  or  Bacillus  pyocyaneus  —  is  also  found.  The  microbes 
can  be  seen  in  preparations  made  from  the  pus.  They  stain 
well  by  the  methyl-blue  methods. 

Lesions.—  It  seems  probable  that  the  bacteria  can  at  first 
penetrate  only  a  damaged  tissue,  but  a  very  small  injury  is 
often  sufficient.  A  primary  lesion  may  be  found  in  connection 
with  a  superficial  wound,  or  it  may  arise  in  any  organ— lung, 
vagina,  urethra,  bladder,  uterus,  etc.— in  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  external  air.  In  the  tissues  the  microbes  by 
the  products  of  their  metabolism  attract  a  large  number  of 
leucocytes  around  them ;  the  tissue  becomes  fatty  and  liquefied. 
In  this  way  a  cavity  is  formed  which  contains  a  fatty  albumin- 
ous fluid  of  varying  consistence.  The  liquid,  which  consists 
of  liquor  puris  and  white  cells,  is  called  pus ;  the  lesion  is  called 
an  abscess.  A  suppurative  inflammation  may  be  established 
in  a  membrane,  and  if  the  membrane  bound  a  cavity,  a  large 
amount  of  pus  accumulates  therein.  Thus  we  may  meet  with 
a  collection  of  pus  in  the  chest— pyo-thor  ax ;  in  the  pericar- 
dium— pyo-pericardium ;  or  in  the  uterus.  An  abscess  generally 
increases  until  the  tissue  which  separates  it  from  the  external 
air  or  a  cavity  is  liquefied,  then  its  contents  are  evacuated.  The 
deeper-seated  ones,  however,  and  those  in  internal  organs, 
often  become  surrounded  by  a  fibrous  capsule  which  limits 
their  extension.  The  fluid,  again,  may  be  absorbed,  and  the 
solids  left  as  a  dry  caseous  mass,  which  sometimes  becomes 
calcified.  Abscesses  vary  in  size  from  a  pin's  head— miliary 
abscess— to  anything  in  reason.  The  lesion  may  and  often 
does  remain  local,  but  the  infection  may  spread  by  the  lymph 
stream  to  the  neighbouring  glands;  or  a  vessel  may  become 
implicated  in  the  suppurative  process,  its  wall  perforated,  and 
the  blood  stream  contaminated.  In  the  latter  case  the  bacteria 
enter  the  circulation,  and  are  arrested  in  the  capillaries  of 


1 2  4  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

internal  organs,  where  they  provoke  abscesses.  This  condition, 
in  which  the  blood  stream  has  been  contaminated  by  the 
pus  germs,  is  called  Pycemia.  The  affected  organs  may  show 
only  a  few  abscesses  ;  or  their  whole  substance  may  be  crowded 
with  yellow  miliary  ones  of  the  same  age.  The  latter  lesion 
resembles  acute  miliary  tuberculosis,  for  at  first  the  contents  of 
the  abscesses  are  not  fluid.  It  also  resembles  the  early  lesions 
of  glanders,  and  those  of  nodular  parasitic  pneumonia  in  sheep. 

It  is  almost  impossible  by  a  mere  microscopic  or  histological 
examination  of  an  organ  to  distinguish  between  the  three  lesions 
in  their  initial  stage,  so  alike  are  they.  Glanders,  however, 
does  not  affect  the  ox,  and  is  practically  never  seen  in  the  other 
animals  slaughtered  in  our  abattoirs.  In  the  case  of  miliary 
tuberculosis,  chronic  lesions  which  are  easy  to  recognise  as 
tubercles  will  be  found  in  some  other  part.  A  bacteriological 
examination  may  aid  one  in  making  the  diagnosis ;  but  it  may 
be  disappointing,  because  the  tubercle  bacillus  is  often  difficult 
to  find  in  very  young  lesions.  The  presence  of  staphylococci 
or  streptococci  is  evidence  in  favour  of  suppuration,  but  it  is 
not  conclusive,  as  there  might  be  a  mixed  infection. 

Histologically  an  abscess  consists  of  a  dense  collection  of 
leucocytes.  There  are  no  giant  cells  present,  but  their  absence 
is  not  by  any  means  conclusive  evidence  that  the  lesion  is  not 
one  of  tuberculosis,  although  their  presence  would  justify  the 
conclusion  that  the  case  is  not  one  of  ordinary  suppuration. 
What  has  been  said  above  is  of  importance  only  as  regards  the 
use  of  the  flesh,  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  advisability 
of  seizing  the  affected  organs.  When  multiple  miliary  abscesses 
are  present  throughout  an  organ,  unless  it  be  the  liver  alone, 
and  when  abscesses  are  found  in  two  or  more  organs  which 
do  not  communicate  naturally  or  accidentally  with  the  outside 
air,  nor  with  each  other  by  any  path  other  than  the  blood  vessels, 
one  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  microbes  have  been  in  the 
blood  stream,  although  they  may  not  have  entered  in  large 
numbers.  The  nodular  disease  in  the  lungs  of  sheep  will  be 
fully  described  in  another  section. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  125 

SUPPUIIATION    IN    THE    ORGANS 

All  the  organs  may  be  invaded  by  way  of  the  blood 
stream  in  the  case  of  pyaemia. 

Lungs  and  pleura.  —The  lungs  may  be  infected  from  without, 
or  from  an  abscess  of  the  throat  by  way  of  the  bronchial  tubes. 
They  may  also  be  invaded  when  a  foreign  body  penetrates  from 
without,  or  from  the  second  stomach  in  cattle.  The  latter 
accident  is  fairly  common  in  town  cows,  and  the  foreign  body 
is  generally  a  sharp  piece  of  wire  or  wood.  When  suppuration 
arises  from  the  latter  cause,  the  pus  is  foetid.  A  blackened 
track  generally  marks  the  course  that  the  body  has  taken ; 
and  the  lungs,  besides  showing  abscesses,  become  emphy- 
sematous  from  the  gases  entering.  In  cases  of  some 
standing,  the  connective  tissue  about  the  wound  is  much 
increased. 

In  the  lungs  of  sheep  affected  with  nodular  (parasitic)  pneu- 
monia, the  Editor  has  frequently  met  with  true  abscesses  of 
about  the  same  size  as  the  larger  parasitic  nodules.  These 
abscesses  are  generally  multiple,  irregularly  distributed,  encap- 
suled,  and  contain  a  greenish-coloured  pus,  but  no  parasite. 
The  sheep  are  usually  fat,  and  of  healthy  appearance. 

The  pleura  may  be  infected  in  the  same  way  as  the  lung 
—by  the  passage  of  a  foreign  body,  or  by  an  abscess  from  the 
latter  organ  evacuating  its  contents  into  the  chest  cavity; 
pyo-thorax  or  empyema  is  the  result.  The  thoracic  glands 
are  infected  from  the  lungs  and  pleura. 

Heart  and  pericardium.  —  Suppuration  in  these  organs 
is  in  the  majority  of  cases  caused  by  a  penetrating  body  from 
the  second  stomach.  Abscess  in  the  heart  wall,  however,  is 
very  uncommon  even  in  pyaemia.  The  changes  are  usually 
those  of  chronic  septic  myocarditis.  The  heart  muscle  is 
hypertrophied,  and  its  wall  is  the  seat  of  chronic  myocarditis. 
The  epicardium  is  covered  by  a  dense  false  membrane,  and 
it  is  often  adherent  to  the  parietal  layer  of  the  sac.  A 
variable  amount  of  foetid  purulent  material  escapes  when  the 


1 2  6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

pericardium  is  incised.  Sometimes  a  vast  collection  of  blood- 
stained pus  is  present  in  the  serous  cavity. 

Liver.  —The  liver  may  be  invaded  through  a  wound  due  to 
a  foreign  body  passing  from  the  second  stomach  of  the  ox. 
The  lesion  is  not  rare  as  a  consequence  of  the  latter  accident. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  peritoneal  surface  of  the  organ 
is  covered  by  a  false  membrane,  which  unites  it  firmly  to  the 
diaphragm.  The  second  stomach  will  also  be  found  much 
thickened  at  the  injured  part,  and  adherent  to  the  diaphragm 
and  superior  portion  of  the  liver.  The  organ  in  newly-born 
animals  is  sometimes  invaded  by  way  of  the  umbilical  vein, 
which  passes  through  it  (see  NAVKL-!LL  AND  JOINT-ILL).  In  the 
latter  case  the  abscesses  are  usually  multiple.  In  adult  oxen, 
abscesses  in  the  liver  from  other  causes  are  not  by  any  means 
rare.  The  organ  is  probably  invaded  by  way  of  the  portal  blood 
from  a  suppurating  focus  or  catarrhal  lesion  in  the  bowel ;  but 
this  question  requires  further  investigation.  The  lesion  often 
complicates  that  of  distomatosis,  and  it  is  also  possible  that  the 
microbes  have  been  carried  from  the  bowel  by  the  parasites. 
It  has  been  already  pointed  out,  however,  that  some  hepatic 
abscesses  are  due  to  the  tubercle  bacillus.  If  an  abscess  has 
been  superficially  placed,  one  sees  an  inflammatory  or  a 
purulent  area  on  the  peritoneal  surface  of  the  diaphragm 
where  the  abscess  has  been  in  contact.  This  may  be  seen  in 
the  carcase  despoiled  of  its  viscera. 

Spleen.— In  pyaemia,  of  course,  the  spleen  is  likely  to  be 
invaded,  but,  that  excepted,  abscess  of  the  spleen  is  exceed- 
ingly rare  in  animals.  It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  origin  of 
isolated  abscesses  in  the  organ,  but  possibly  they  are  caused 
by  the  arrest  of  a  few  leucocytes  carrying  microbes.  The  latter 
lesions  cannot  be  taken  as  evidence  of  pyaemia  in  its  full 
sense. 

Stomach  and  intestines.  — Abscesses  in  these  organs  are 
rarely  met  with  in  animals.  When  present,  the  probability  is 
that  the  germs  have  gained  entrance  to  their  tissue  by  means 
of  wounds  011  the  mucous  membrane.  An  abscess  in  the  wall 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  127 

of  the  alimentary  tube  may  burst  into  the  peritoneum  and 
cause  suppurative  peritonitis. 

Kidney.— The  kidney  is  frequently  invaded  in  the  course  of 
pyaemia,  and  then  both  organs  are  affected  (see  JOINT-ILL). 
The  miliary  abscesses  in  this  case  are  most  numerous  in  the 
cortex,  because  the  giomerular  capillaries  arrest  the  microbes. 
They  are  also  present,  however,  in  the  medulla.  The  organ 
is  enlarged,  and  in  cases  of  some  standing  contains  a  good 
deal  of  new  fibrous  tissue.  The  capsule  is  adherent.  The 
kidney  may  also  be  invaded  by  way  of  the  ureter,  when  suppura- 
tion is  present  in  some  other  part  of  the  urino-geiiital  tract, 
such  as  the  vagina,  urethra,  or  bladder.  In  this  case— sup- 
purative pyelonephritis— the  abscesses  are  at  first  most  evident 
in  the  medulla,  but  after  the  process  has  gone  on  for  some 
time  the  whole  organ  is  invaded,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say 
from  an  examination  of  it  alone,  how  infection  has  taken  place. 
If  only  one  kidney  is  affected,  one  may  conclude  that  the 
invasion  has  taken  place  by  the  ureter.  Both  kidneys,  of 
course,  might  be  simultaneously  invaded  by  way  of  the  ureters  ; 
but  in  the  case  of  a  blood  stream  infection  a  primary  focus 
will  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  shape  of  a  softened  clot  or  an 
abscess. 

Udder.— The  udder  is  usually  invaded  through  a  wound 
into  its  subcutaneous  tissue,  or  by  way  of  the  teats.  In  the 
former  case  a  single  abscess  is  the  usual  result ;  but  in  the 
latter,  multiple  abscesses  are  formed  throughout  the  quarter, 
and  may  burst  externally. 

Uterus  and  ovaries.— The  uterus  is  invaded  usually  by  way 
of  the  vulva  and  vagina.  When  suppuration  occurs  it  is 
almost  always  as  a  sequel  of  parturition.  Pus  collects  in  vari- 
able amount  in  the  uterus,  and  frequently  becomes  putrid. 
The  microbes  sometimes  grow  up  the  clots  in  the  vessels  until 
the  patent  branches  are  reached,  and  in  this  way  pyaemia  may 
be  established  (see  SEPTIC  METRITIS). 

Bones.  — It  is  not  rare  to  find  suppuration  in  the  bones,  and 
the  marrow  is  certain  to  be  invaded  in  the  course  of  pyaemia. 


1 28  MEAT  INSPECTION 

A  single  bone  may  be  infected  from  a  neighbouring  abscess  or 
by  way  of  a  penetrating  wound  from  without.  The  extremities 
of  the  bone  are  where  the  abscess  mostly  forms.  The  bone 
becomes  much  swollen,  and  its  substance  is  perforated  by 
cloacae,  through  which  pus  escapes  to  the  exterior.  In  some 
cases  the  pus  collects  under  the  periosteum,  stripping  it 
off  from  the  bone,  and  as  a  consequence  the  latter  undergoes 
necrosis.  In.  other  cases  the  microbes  eat  into  the  bone,  as  it 
were,  from  without.  No  abscess  is  formed,  but  necrosis  takes 
place  in  small  particles.  This  condition,  which  is  called  caries, 
can  be  brought  about  by  other  microbes  than  those  of  suppur- 
ation. It  is  generally  seen  in  connection  with  the  vertebrae, 
and  is  well  exemplified  in  some  cases  of  poll-evil  of  the  horse, 
when  the  occipital  bone  and  the  atlas  become  implicated.  The 
affected  part  of  the  bone  has  an  eroded  appearance ;  it  is  irregular, 
and  there  is  often  a  considerable  loss  of  substance.  When  the 
bone  marrow  is  invaded  from  without— infective  osteo-myelitis 
—pyaemia  follows,  because  the  microbes  easily  gain  access  to 
the  circulation  owing  to  the  naturally  delicate  condition 
of  the  vessel  walls  in  the  marrow.  In  pyaemia  from  other 
sources  the  condition  of  the  marrow  affords  us  very  useful 
information.  It  is  congested,  and  contains  the  microbes.  If 
the  animal  has  lived  long  enough,  purulent  centres  will  be 
found. 

NAVEL-ILL  AND  JOINT-ILL 

The  first  of  these  terms  is  applied  to  a  septic  condition 
of  the  umbilical  wound  in  newly-born  animals.  The  wound 
does  not  heal,  but  continues  to  discharge.  Even  after 
it  has  closed  up  an  abscess  may  form  in  the  subcutaneous 
tissue.  Navel-ill  in  the  majority  of  cases  leads  to  the 
far  more  serious  condition  termed  "  Joint-ill,"  or  "  Umbilical 
Pyaemia."  The  pyogenic  microbes  extend  along  the  clots  in 
the  umbilical  vessels.  In  this  way  they  reach  the  liver,  where 
multiple  abscesses  are  soon  formed,  and  the  general  circulation, 
whereby  the  other  organs  of  the  body  are  invaded.  The  pyaemic 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  129 

condition  is  well  established,  and  often  proves  fatal  about  the 
third  or  fourth  week  of  life ;  that  is  to  say,  before  the  age  when 
the  young  enter  the  abattoir.  Some  of  them,  however,  hang  on 
for  a  considerable  time  longer,  and  are  sent  to  the  abattoir  in 
the  hope  that  something  may  be  made  out  of  them. 

Animals  affected.  — All  young  animals  are  liable  to  contract 
the  disease.  It  is  sometimes  seen  even  in  children.  It  is  met 
with  most  frequently,  however,  in  foals,  calves,  and  lambs, 
animals  whose  umbilical  wounds  are  often  left  to  take  care  of 
themselves. 

Lesions.  —  The  lesions  are,  of  course,  those  of  pyaemia. 
Abscesses  are  found  in  the  liver,  the  spleen,  the  kidney,  the 
lungs,  and  sometimes  in  the  muscles.  In  some  cases,  however, 
the  symptoms  seem  due  to  intoxication,  as  no  distinct 
abscesses  are  observable.  The  joints,  particularly  the  hocks 
and  knees,  are  swollen.  On  cutting  into  them,  one  finds  the 
sy  no  vial  membrane  congested  or  opaque— synovitis  ;  the  cavity 
contains  a  turbid  fluid,  but  it  is  rare  to  find  true  pus. 
Microbes  may  be  found  in  the  joint  fluid. 

STRANGLES 

As  this  disease  is  peculiar  to  the  horse  tribe,  a  short  descrip- 
tion will  suffice  in  an  English  book  on  meat  inspection. 

It  is  characterised  by  a  purulent  catarrh  of  the  anterior 
respiratory  passages,  and  by  the  formation  of  abscesses  in  the 
neighbouring  lymphatic  glands  and  on  the  skin.  Sometimes 
metastatic  abscesses  are  formed  in  the  internal  organs. 

The  disease  is  caused  by  the  streptococcus  of  Schutz,  which 
is  found  in  preparations  made  from  the  pus.  It  stains  by  the 
methyl-blue  preparations,  and  by  Gram's  method. 

Inspection  in  tlie  case  of  suppurative  diseases.— Although 
there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  suppuration  or  pyaemia 
can  arise  in  human  beings  from  the  ingestion  of  food  contain- 
ing pyogenic  germs,  it  is  generally  believed  by  medical  men 

9 


1 30  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

that  food  of  this  description— milk,  for  example— may  be  the 
cause  of  serious  bowel  disturbance,  such  as  catarrh  and 
diarrhoea. 

When  superficial  abscesses  exist,  and  the  neighbouring  glands 
are  healthy,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  seize  the  affected  part 
and  the  altered  tissue  round  about  it.  It  will  generally  be 
found  that  the  tissues  in  the  neighbourhood  are  infiltrated 
with  fluid,  and  that  they  are  in  an  unmarketable  condition. 
The  rest  of  the  carcase,  however,  is  usually  quite  fit  for  the 
market,  and  no  harm  can  result  from  passing  it.  When  the 
local  glands  are  also  diseased,  the  whole  of  the  region  concerned 
should  be  seized.  The  fate  of  the  other  parts  will,  of  course, 
depend  on  their  appearance. 

In  some  of  the  finest-looking  beasts  encapsuled  abscesses 
are  often  found  in  some  of  the  internal  organs— the  liver  and 
lung,  for  example.  It  is  a  debatable  point  whether  these 
abscesses  are  of  haematogenous  origin  or  not ;  but  if  they  are, 
very  few  bacteria  can  have  entered  the  blood  stream,  and  the 
condition  is  not  a  pyaemia  in  its  full  sense.  Only  the  affected 
organs  need  be  seized. 

When  the  suppuration  is  local  but  very  extensive,  as  one 
sometimes  finds  in  the  uterus,  the  chest,  and  the  peritoneum, 
the  flesh  is  fevered  and  oedematous.  It  does  not  set,  and  in 
the  majority  of  cases  is  quite  unmarketable.  In  the  case  of  the 
uterus  the  pelvic  tissues  are  infiltrated  with  blood ;  sometimes 
they  are  gangrenous  and  give  off  a  stinking  odour  (see  SEPTIC 
METRITIS).  Flesh  from  cases  of  the  latter  description  putrefies 
rapidly,  and  is  always  of  very  bad  aspect.  It  should  not  be 
allowed  into  the  market.  Cows  with  a  foreign  body  in  the 
heart  or  lungs  often  live  for  a  considerable  time,  even  when  the 
heart  lesions  are  very  marked.  If  serious  febrile  symptoms 
have  been  present  just  before  death,  the  flesh  is  fevered,  soapy 
to  the  feel,  and  in  some  parts  oedematous.  In  addition,  putre- 
factive changes  are  often  present  in  the  tissues  and  organs  of 
the  chest. 

A  carcase  presenting  the  above  appearances  will,  of  course, 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  131 

be  treated  as  unmarketable,  because  the  flesh  has  not  only  a 
repulsive  aspect,  but  it  is  prone  to  rapid  putrefaction.  In  a 
few  cases  in  which  the  septic  changes  are  less  marked,  the 
flesh  is  normal  and  apparently  fit  for  the  market.  It  may, 
however,  be  necessary  to  order  the  pleura  to  be  stripped  off. 
Before  giving  his  final  decision,  the  inspector  should  satisfy 
himself  as  to  the  condition  of  the  flesh  and  local  glands  by  making 
incisions  in  a  manner  that  will  least  disfigure  the  carcase.  When 
pyaemia  exists,  the  whole  carcase  should  be  seized.  It  is  not  always 
an  easy  matter  to  convince  oneself  of  the  presence  or  absence 
of  pyaemia,  but  an  inspector  with  a  training  in  pathology  will 
know  that  it  is  never  a  primary  condition,  that  it  is  most  likely 
to  be  connected  with  navel-ill,  a  septic  clot  in  one  of  the  blood 
vessels,  or  suppuration  in  the  marrow.  A  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  an  organ  in  the  fresh  state  does  not  require  much 
time,  and  it  may  reveal  the  presence  of  multiple  disseminated 
abscesses,  although  little  alteration  is  observable  by  the  naked 
eye. 

BOTRYOMYCOSIS 

Botryomycosis  is  an  inoculable  disease  caused  by  the  Micro- 
coccus  asco  for  mans,  and  characterised  by  the  formation  of  pus 
and  of  fibrous  tissue  in  the  parts  invaded. 

Animals  affected.— The  horse  is  most  often  affected  with 
this  disease,  but  cases  have  been  reported  in  the  ox  and  pig. 

Lesions.—  Czokor  has  recorded  a  case  of  interstitial  mammitis 
in  the  cow  due  to  this  parasite.  Lesions  similar  to  those  found 
in  the  horse  have  been  described  in  the  pig,  viz.  scirrhous 
cord,  and  chronic  interstitial  myositis  affecting  the  muscles  of 
the  thigh. 

The  new  tissue  crushes  out  the  essential  elements,  and  the 
organ  is  converted  into  a  fibrous  mass.  In  this  new  tissue 
softened  centres  are  found,  or  there  may  be  cavities  containing 
an  albuminous  fluid  of  a  brown  colour.  This  fluid  when  ex- 
amined on  a  slide  shows  to  the  naked  eye  some  yellow  sand- 
like  grains.  These  are  colonies  of  the  parasite.  When  stained 


1 3  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

by  Loffler's  or  Kiihne's  blue,  and  examined  with  the  micro- 
scope, they  appear  as  irregular  masses  of  cocci,  surrounded  by 
a  membrane. 

Inspection.— The  carcase  may  be  passed  after  the  affected 
parts  have  been  removed. 

MAMMITIS 
INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  MAMMARY  GLAND 

This  is  an  affection  of  the  udder  which  may  arise  from  more 
than  one  species  of  microbe  penetrating  by  way  of  the  teat.  In 
the  most  prevalent  form  seen  in  this  country  it  is  accompanied 
by  severe  systemic  disturbance. 

Animals  affected.  — Ml  females  in  lactation  may  suffer  from 
mammitis,  but  it  is  chiefly  in  the  milch  cow  that  we  meet  with 
it  in  the  abattoir.  It  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  heifer,  but  in 
this  case  it  is  of  the  suppurative  type.  The  goat  also  suffers. 
Nocard  has  described  a  gangrenous  mammitis  in  ewes ;  but  so 
far  as  the  Editor  is  aware,  the  disease  has  not  been  recorded 
in  this  country. 

The  microbes.— Nocard  has  described  a  form  of  mammitis 
in  milch  cows  which  is  due  to  a  small  streptococcus  (Mammite 
streptococcique  des  vaches).  The  cocci  have  a  diameter  of  1  /m. 
They  are  found  in  the  milk  and  in  the  acini.  They  stain  well 
by  the  methyl-blue  preparations. 

The  Editor  has  repeatedly  found  streptococci  and  other 
microbes  in  the  contents  of  the  acini  of  affected  udders.  He- 
has  also  been  able  to  assure  himself  that  these  microbes  were 
the  cause  of  the  disease ;  but  he  has  never  had  the  opportunity 
of  experimentally  proving  that  any  individual  species  was  alone 
responsible  for  it. 

The  microbe  of  the  gangrenous  mammitis  described  by 
Nocard  is  a  small  micrococcus  arranged  in  zoogloea  masses. 
It  stains  by  the  methyl-blue  preparations  and  by  Gram's  method. 

Lesions.— In  the  disease  described  by  Nocard  there  is  a 
catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  acinal  membrane.  The  lesions 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  133 

run  a  chronic  course  from  the  first ;  new  fibrous  tissue  is  formed, 
first  at  the  base  of  the  teat,  then  it  spreads  gradually  through 
the  gland.  There  is  no  systemic  disturbance. 

In  the  form  of  mammitis  most  frequently  met  with  in  this 
country,  the  disease  starts  with  an  acute  stage.  It  is  seldom 
fatal,  but  one  sometimes  gets  an.  opportunity  of  making  a  post- 
mortem examination  of  the  gland  in  the  abattoir  even  in  the 
acute  stages.  Cows  suffering  from  chronic  mammitis  are  often 
sent  for  slaughter,  as  it  does  not  pay  to  keep  them  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk.  The  disease  may  be  confined  to  one  quarter, 
or  it  may  affect  all  four. 

In  the  acute  stages  the  affected  quarters  are  swollen,  and  the 
skin  of  the  teats  is  tense.  On  section,  the  gland  tissue  is  pink 
in  colour  ;  the  contents  of  the  acini  are  creamy  and  blood-tinged. 
If  the  latter  material  be  examined  microscopically  after  staining, 
it  will  be  found  to  contain  leucocytes,  epithelial  cells,  red  blood 
corpuscles,  and  various  microbes.  In  some  forms  of  mammitis 
the  contents  of  the  acini  are  serous  and  stinking.  In  others 
they  are  filled  with  thick  pus  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  there  may 
even  be  large  abscesses  in  the  gland  substance.  In  still  another 
form  the  acini  contain  greyish  or  yellowish  clots  of  coagulated 
milk. 

The  explanation  of  these  variations  lies  in  the  different 
properties  of  the  microbes  which  are  capable  of  setting  up 
mammitis. 

It  should  be  mentioned,  however,  that  in  a  normal  gland 
which  has  been  exposed  for  some  time  in  the  post-mortem  room, 
the  milk  in  the  acini  becomes  clotted.  This  condition  has  been 
already  referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Tuberculosis  (p.  99).  A 
microscopical  examination  of  the  gland  will  reveal  the  true 
state  of  affairs.  When  any  -of  the  above  forms  have  existed 
for  some  time,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the  gland  is  enlarged 
and  harder  than  normal,  owing  to  the  formation  of  new  fibrous 
tissue.  On  section,  the  graining  of  the  fibrous  parts  is  coarser, 
and  the  new  tissue  by  its  contraction  renders  the  remaining 
gland  substance  more  prominent  in  certain  parts.  The  Editor 


1 34  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

has  already  stated  that  many  of  the  cases  of  chronic  interstitial 
mammitis  which  have  come  under  his  notice  have  turned 
out,  on  microscopical  examination,  to  be  due  to  the  tubercle 
bacillus,  although  the  macroscopic  appearance  did  not  in  the 
least  justify  such  a  conclusion. 

The  histological  changes  in  mammitis  are  conclusive.  In 
the  acute  stages  the  acinal  walls  are  swollen  and  densely  in- 
filtrated with  round  cells.  The  spaces  contain  many  leucocytes, 
some  red  corpuscles,  and  a  fair  proportion  of  desquamated 
epithelial  cells.  A  few  microbes  are  discovered  in  some  of  the 
acini.  In  the  chronic  stages  the  acini  are  compressed  by  new 
fibrous  tissue.  In  some  lobules  they  are  more  widely  separated 
from  each  other  than  in  the  normal  gland ;  they  may  be 
obliterated  altogether  by  the  new  growth  (Fig.  11).  The 
changes  observed  in  one  part  of  the  same  quarter  may  be 
acute,  while  those  seen  in  a  neighbouring  region  are  of  a 
chronic  nature.  The  supramammary  lymphatics  may  be 
normal,  but  in  the  purulent  and  stinking  forms  they  are 
enlarged  and  oedematous. 

The  flesh  of  the  carcase  is  darker  than  normal,  and  shows 
the  alterations  produced  by  fever,  if  the  animal  has  been  killed 
in  the  acute  stage.  When  the  latter  is  past,  no  alteration 
is  discoverable  in  the  flesh.  In  the  stinking  form,  however, 
the  flesh  may  have  a  faint  but  unpleasant  odour,  and  it  is  liable 
to  putrefy  quickly. 

The  appearances  of  mammitis  caused  by  the  tubercle  bacillus 
and  the  actinomyces  have  been  described  in  special  chapters. 

Inspection.— In  all  cases  the  diseased  gland  and  its  lymphatics 
should  be  removed  and  destroyed.  The  fate  of  the  carcase 
will  of  course  depend  on  its  appearance.  If  the  proprietor 
has  been  so  ill-advised  as  to  have  his  animal  slaughtered 
during  the  acute  stages,  the  flesh  will  be  dark  in  colour,  sticky, 
and  it  may  not  set  firmly.  These  faults  may  be  present  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  the  carcase  unfit  for  the  market. 
In  the  fresh  condition  there  is  nothing  about  the  flesh  which 
is  likely  to  injure  the  consumer;  but  carcases  of  this  kind 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  135 

which  would  be  accepted  in  one  market  Avould  be  rejected  on 
account  of  their  appearance  in  another.  The  inspector,  how- 
ever, should  exercise  greater  severity  when  dealing  with  cases 
of  putrid  mammitis,  for  the  flesh  under  these  circumstances 
may  putrefy  rather  rapidly.  If  it  gives  off  any  disagreeable 
odour  it  should  be  condemned. 

SEPTIC  METRITIS 

This  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the  womb,  which  is  due  to 
bacteria  penetrating  by  way  of  the  genital  organs.  It  is  accom- 
panied by  severe  systemic  disturbance,  due  to  absorption  of  the 
bacterial  products. 

In  this  chapter  the  Editor  has  included  the  disease  known 
as  "  malignant  parturient  fever  "  in  ewes.  He  does  not  intend 
to  convey  the  idea,  however,  that  all  the  affections  here  included 
are  one  and  the  same,— they  are  only  to  be  regarded  as  in  the 
same  category ;  but  it  would  be  impossible  to  treat  them  separ- 
ately, owing  to  the  state  of  our  knowledge  concerning  their 
pathology.  For  the  purposes  of  a  book  011  meat  inspection, 
this  arrangement  is  quite  suitable. 

Animals  affected.— All  parturient  animals  are  liable  to  such 
disorders.  In  the  city  abattoirs  the  disease  is  seen  mostly  in 
cows.  Affected  ewes  are  seldom  sent  in  alive,  but  their  carcases 
may  be  forwarded  after  being  dressed.  Sows  in  this  condition 
seldom  arrive  in  the  abattoir  either  dead  or  alive,  but  certain 
sequelae  of  the  affection,  in  the  form  of  abscesses,  may  be  found 
in  some  members  of  this  species,  which  have  been  slaughtered 
long  after  the  last  parturition. 

The  microbes.—  The  different  species  of  microbes  found  at 
the  seat  of  disease  are  very  numerous,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
shown  that  any  one  of  them  is  solely  responsible  for  the  disease ; 
indeed,  it  is  more  likely  that  several  act  in  concert.  Some  of 
them  are  pyogeiiic,  others  are  putrefactive. 

Lesions.— The  lesions  vary  greatly.  It  may  be  that  the 
disturbance  has  been  caused  by  a  retained  piece  of  the  placenta, 


136  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

which  has  begun  to  putrefy.  In  this  case  the  uterus  is  not 
properly  retracted.  Its  cavity  contains  a  small  amount  of  a 
thick,  reddish  brown  fluid,  which  has  a  disagreeable  odour. 
The  cotyledons  are  congested  and  pulpy  in  appearance.  The 
flesh  is  fevered. 

In  other  cases  the  uterine  walls  are  thickened  and  oedema- 
tous.  The  mucous  membrane  is  congested,  and  the  cavity  of 
the  organ  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  sanious  pus, 
which  smells  abominably. 

The  pelvic  tissues  in  such  cases  are  discoloured  by  extra- 
vasated  blood,  and  peritonitis  is  often  present.  The  lips  of  the 
vulva  are  often  tense  and  oedematous,  and  the  oedema  may 
even  extend  to  the  perinseum.  In  some  cases  the  uterus 
contains  unaltered  pus,  and  when  the  os  uteri  has  become 
closed  the  distended  organ  may  contain  a  gallon  or  two  of  that 
material. 

If  the  condition  has  existed  for  some  time,  abscesses  may 
be  found  in  the  pelvic  tissues ;  there  may  even  be  a  purulent 
pyelo-nephritis  present,  but  that  is  a  rare  lesion.  The  microbes 
often  cause  softening  of  the  clots  in  the  uterine  vessels,  and 
they  may  spread  along  them  until  the  circulation  is  reached. 
In  the  latter  cases  a  species  of  septicaemia  results,  or  embolic 
lesions  may  arise  in  the  different  organs.  The  serous  mem- 
branes and  lungs  very  often  show  lesions. 

.In  the  uteri  of  cows  which  have  recently  aborted,  there  is 
often  found  a  brownish,  syrupy,  odourless  fluid.  The  organ 
is  more  flaccid  than  it  should  be,  but  no  marked  changes  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  on  its  mucous  membrane,  nor  are 
any  signs  of  systemic  disturbance  visible  in  the  flesh. 

Serous  membranes.— They  are  often  ecchymosed.  Some- 
times the  peritoneum  becomes  infected  from  the  uterus,  and 
shows  lesjons  of  putrid  inflammation.  A  dirty  grey  false 
membrane  is  present,  and  the  fluid  contained  in  the  cavity  is 
stinking.  The  pleura  and  pericardium  may  show  similar 
changes,  but  these  have  usually  had  their  starting-point  in 
the  lungs. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  137 

Lungs.— Very  often  in  the  cow  the  lungs  are  the  seat  of  a 
lobar.  pneumonia  which  is  putrid  in  character.  Large  areas 
of  lung  are  completely  hepatised.  Serous  fluid  oozes  from  the 
surface  of  section,  and  a  putrefactive  odour  is  given  off.  The 
appearance  of  the  section  is  almost  characteristic ;  it  somewhat 
resembles  that  of  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia. 

On  section,  the  interlobular  septa  appear  to  be  much 
broader  than  the  normal,  owing  to  distension  of  their  lymph 
spaces.  The  lobules  are  of  a  dull  red  colour,  but  they  have 
many  greyish  specks  scattered  through  them. 

The  microscope  shows  that  the  aveolar  contents  consist 
mainly  of  leucocytes  and  red  cells.  Several  species  of  microbes 
can  be  obtained  from  the  lung. 

Inspection.— In  the  majority  of  cases  of  septic  metritis  the 
flesh  is  fevered.  Sometimes  it  has  an  iridescent  appearance, 
which  is  well  seen  when  the  carcase  is  ribbed.  Frequently  it 
happens  that  the  animal  does  not  bleed  well.  In  the  latter 
case  the  flesh  is  very  dark,  and  the  superficial  parts  are  dis- 
coloured by  streaks  of  blood. 

On  these  grounds  alone  the  carcase  might  be  condemned 
as  unmarketable,  for  its  appearance  is  very  repulsive ;  but  there 
are  still  more  serious  objections  to  the  indiscriminate  use  of 
the  flesh  from  such  carcases  as  human  food.  There  is  often 
strong  evidence— embolic  lesions,  septic  pneumonia— that  the 
blood  stream  has  been  contaminated  by  noxious  germs,  and  the 
flesh  tends  to  putrefy  quickly.  Cases  of  the  latter  description 
call  for  total  seizure.  The  uterus,  however,  may  occasionally 
contain  unaltered  pus,  while  the  only  other  lesions  seen  are 
slight  congestion  of  the  pelvic  tissues,  with  the  presence  not 
infrequently  of  an  abscess  in  their  substance.  Signs  of  systemic 
disturbance  are  absent ;  there  is  no  evidence  of  embolic  lesions, 
nor  is  the  flesh  fevered.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Editor,  the 
latter  cases  should  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way  as  local 
suppuration  (see  p.  130). 


1 38  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

DIPTHERIA 

The  term  Diphtheria  is  applied  in  veterinary  pathology  to 
diseases  characterised  by  superficial  necrosis  and  the  appear- 
ance of  a  false  membrane  on  or  about  the  fauces.  This  appli- 
cation is  as  unfortunate  as  it  is  loose,  for  not  only  does  it 
leave  undifferentiated  by  name  diseases  whose  only  point  of 
similarity  is  a  symptom,  but  it  is  apt  to  lead  one  to  suppose 
that  human  diphtheria  may  have  its  origin  in  animals,  which 
is  probably  not  the  case. 

The  bacillus  of  human  diphtheria  has  special  characters 
of  its  own,  and  nobody  has  yet  reported  a  disease  in  animals 
that  corresponds  in  its  lesions  and  systemic  symptoms  to  human 
diphtheria.  The  existence  of  the  latter  disease  in  animals  is 
rendered  still  more  doubtful  by  the  fact  that  they  are  exceed- 
ingly sensitive  to  the  paralysing  toxin  of  the  true  diphtheria 
bacillus. 

DIPHTHERIA  OF  BIRDS 

The  disease  is  caused  by  the  bacillus  of  avian  diphtheria. 
It  has  been  described  in  all  the  birds  of  the  farm  and  in  game. 
Report  seems  to  show  that  human  beings  are  very  rarely 
attacked  by  this  disease. 

The  microbe.— The  microbe  is  a  bacillus,  rounded  at  the 
ends,  and  measuring  1  //,  x  0-3.  It  is  found  in  masses  with 
other  microbes  in  the  deep  layers  of  the  false  membranes, 
and  in  acute  cases  it  is  present  in  the  blood  vessels  (Septicaemia). 
It  stains  by  the  methyl-blue  preparations,  not  by  Gram's 
method. 

Lesions.— Tough  yellow  false  membranes  are  found  on  the 
conjunctivse  and  on  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth, 
pharynx,  nasal  cavities,  and  larynx.  Sometimes  the  lower 
parts  of  the  respiratory  and  alimentary  membranes  become 
infected  from  the  upper,  and  similar  lesions  appear  on  the 
mucous  linings  of  the  bowel  and  bronchi. 

On  pulling  off  the  dense  exuded  material,  a  raw  red  surface 
is  exposed.  Sometimes  the  disease  assumes  an  acute  or  septi- 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  139 

csemic  form.  In  the  latter  case  one  finds  congestion  of  the 
organs,  especially  the  spleen,  and  small  patches  of  necrosis 
in  the  liver. 

Sections  of  organs,  when  examined  microscopically,  show 
the  bacilli  in  the  small  vessels. 

Inspection.  —  Apart  from  the  risk  of  transmission  to  man 
of  avian  diphtheria,  the  possibility  of  which  hardly  seems  to 
be  established,  the  birds  are  usually  emaciated,  and  therefore 
unfit  for  human  food. 

DIPHTHERIA  OF  FOWLS  DUE  TO  GREGARIN^E 

Rivolta  and  Silvestri  were  the  first  to  describe  psorosperms 
in  connection  with  the  diphtheria  of  fowls.  They  considered 
them  to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease,  and  Pfeiffer  afterwards 
supported  their  opinion. 

It  is  established  by  more  recent  researches  that  refractile 
ovoid  bodies  (coccidia)  are  found  in  the  scrapings  from  the 
throat  and  inside  the  epithelial  cells  of  birds  affected  with  the 
disease,  but  the  experimental  evidence  is  quite  insufficient  to 
establish  that  these  parasites  are  the  cause  of  diphtheria  in 
birds. 

DIPHTHERIA  OF  CALVES 

So  far  as  the  Editor  is  aware,  no  case  of  the  disease  in  this 
form  has  been  recorded  in  this  country,  although  a  similar 
bacillus  is  pretty  often  responsible  for  necrosis  in  the  livers  of 
our  adult  oxen. 

The  microbe.  —  Dammami  first  described  this  disease  in 
calves  and  lambs  as  due  to  a  micrococcus  which  exists  generally 
in  the  false  membranes  along  with  bacilli.  Loftier,  however, 
showed  the  disease  to  be  due  to  a  long  wavy  bacillus,  which 
has  since  been  described  by  Bang  as  the  bacillus  of  necrosis. 
It  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  necrosis  in  other  parts  of  the  body. 
M'Fadyean  has  described  it  in  the  livers  of  oxen  (vide  MULTIPLE 
DISSEMINATED  NECROSIS  OF  LIVER). 


1 40  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

The  microbe  measures  from  4  to  50  //,,  or  longer,  and  it  is 
often  associated  with  other  microbes. 

It  is  difficult  to  stain,  but  Kiihne's  or  Loffler's  blue  suit 
best. 

Lesions.—  Grey  necrotic  patches  covered  by  an  exudate  are 
found  on  the  buccal  and  pharyngeal  mucous  membrane. 

The  necrosis  may  have  spread  to  the  respiratory  or 
alimentary  membranes,  or  it  may  have  been  inoculated  at 
the  feet. 

Inspection.— The  bacillus  tends  to  remain  local,  in  the  sense 
that  the  infection  does  not  become  generalised.  Seizure  of  the 
lesions  is  all  that  is  necessary  if  the  flesh  be  of  good  quality. 

ASPERGILLOSIS 

This  is  the  name  given  by  continental  authors  to  lesions 
caused  by  the  Aspergillus  fumigatus  in  the  bodies  of  animals. 

Animals  affected.  —  Probably  all  animals  are  susceptible  to 
aspergillosis,  but  the  disease  has  most  frequently  been  met 
with  in  man  and  birds.  It  has  been  seen  in  fowls,  ducks, 
geese,  turkeys,  and  pigeons.  Lucet  has  very  fully  described  a 
case  of  aspergillosis  in  the  cow,  and  along  with  Thary  he  has 
recorded  one  in  the  horse. 

The  Aspergillus  fumigatus.— This  parasite  belongs  to  the 
class  of  moulds.  It  is  found  in  the  form  of  spores,  or  tube- 
like  filaments  which  are  partitioned.  The  spores  are  spherical 
bodies,  measuring  about  4  p  in  length.  The  latter  are  numer- 
ously present  in  the  blood  stream  and  organs  in  acute  cases. 
The  filaments  are  found  most  abundantly  on  the  surfaces  of 
membranes  such  as  the  pleura,  the  peritoneum,  the  bronchial 
membrane,  and  that  of  the  air-sacs  in  birds. 

In  the  air  passages  the  parasite  attains  its  fullest  develop- 
ment. Cover-glass  preparations  show  that  it  consists  of  fila- 
ments (kyphcv)  felted  together  into  a  mass  (mycelium).  From 
the  mycelium  spore-bearing  hyphse  arise.  The  masses  are  of 
a  grey  green  or  brown  colour.  Occasionally  the  parasite 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  14 1 

assumes  the  appearance  of  the  ray  fungus  in  the  tissues 
(Laulanie).  The  spores  can  be  seen  in  cover-glass  preparations 
made  from  the  blood  and  organs  in  acute  cases.  They  can 
also  be  found  in  sections  of  the  affected  organs.  In  the  more 
chronic  lesions  of  the  organs  a  few  filaments  can  be  seen,  but 
they  seem  to  disappear  from  the  oldest  nodules. 

The  parasite  can  be  stained  by  Gram's  method  and  by 
carbol-thionin  blue. 

Lesions.  —  Acute  cases  are  marked  by  hsemorrhagic  lesions 
of  the  septicaemia  type.  This  was  the  form  observed  by  Lucet 
in  the  cow  and  the  horse.  Haemorrhages  are  present  under 
the  skin,  in  the  muscles  and  internal  organs.  The  serous 
membranes  are  ecchymosed,  and  the  cavities  conta  n  blood- 
tinged  fluid. 

In  chronic  cases  nodules  may  be  found  in  any  of  the  organs 
—the  lungs,  the  liver,  the  spleen,  the  kidney,  the  bowel,  and 
even  in  the  muscles.  These  nodules  vary  in  size  from  a  pin- 
head  to  a  pea.  They  are  greyish  in  colour,  and  the  older  ones 
are  of  fibrous  consistence.  They  are  very  like  some  forms  of 
true  tubercle.  Histologically  the  youngest  nodules  are  com- 
posed of  leucocytes.  Giant  cells  may  be  found  at  a  later  stage, 
and  fibrous  tissue  is  formed  at  the  periphery  of  the  oldest 
nodules.  The  presence  of  the  parasite  has  been  already  referred 
to.  When  the  membranes  are  invaded,  an  exudate  is  present, 
and  masses  of  filaments  may  be  found  on  its  surface.  This  is 
well  seen  in  the  bronchial  tubes  and  in  the  air-sacs  of  birds. 
On  the  peritoneum  of  the  goose,  Lucet  has  described  plaques 
of  exudate  about  the  size  of  a  threepenny-piece. 

Inspection.— It  is  difficult  to  experimentally  infect  animals 
with  the  Aspergillus  fumigatus  by  the  iiigestion  method.  In 
experiments  in  which  the  results  wTere  positive,  lesions  were 
found  in  the  lungs,  but  not  in  the  bowel  (Lucet,  Ren  on).  It 
is  possible,  then,  that  infection  took  place  by  way  of  the  trachea 
from  the  mouth.  Local  lesions  should  of  course  be  removed, 
but  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  condemn  the  carcase  except  in 
acute  cases. 


142  MEAT  INSPECTION 

BACTERIAL  NECROSIS 

There  are  several  varieties  of  bacteria  which  cause  local 
death  in  tissues.  For  example,  the  bacillus  of  diphtheria  and  the 
tubercle  bacillus  have  this  action.  The  lesions  to  which  this 
chapter  is  consecrated,  however,  are  only  of  local  importance  ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  causal  agents  remain  in  the  regions  where 
they  have  been  arrested,  and  no  systemic  disturbance  occurs, 
other  than  that  which  follows  upon  partial  destruction  of  an 
organ.  It  may,  of  course,  be  serious  enough,  if  the  destroyed 
part  be  a  vital  one. 

Animals  affected.— Ik  seems  probable  that  necrosis  of  tissue 
may  be  caused  in  every  species  of  animal  by  certain  microbes, 
whose  effects  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  invaded  parts. 
In  most  cases,  however,  these  microbes  can  only  act  on  tissues 
already  injured  by  other  bacteria,  or  on  those  which  have  had 
their  vitality  impaired  by  other  influences,  such  as  mechanical 
injury.  Thus  Bang  attributed  to  a  widely  disseminated  micro- 
organism, which  he  called  "  the  bacillus  of  necrosis,"  the  necrotic 
lesions  of  the  bowel  which  are  seen  in  swine  fever ;  but  the 
researches  of  M'Fadyean  show  that  these  are  most  probably 
due  to  the  bacillus  of  swine  fever  itself.  The  same  microbe  has 
been  found  in  necrotic  areas  in  various  parts  of  the  bodies  of 
other  animals— for  example,  on  the  coronet  of  the  ox,  in  the 
lungs,  and  in  the  liver.  Lofner's  bacillus  of  diphtheria  in  calves 
is  apparently  the  same  organism.  M'Fadyean  has  described 
a  bacterial  necrosis  in  the  livers  of  oxen  and  sheep ;  and  the 
cause  of  the  former,  at  least,  is  a  micro-organism  morphologic- 
ally identical  to  the  others.  The  microbes  present  in  the  lesion 
of  the  sheep  were  different. 

Bacterial  necrosis  of  the  liver  is  comparatively  common  in 
oxen  slaughtered  at  the  Edinburgh  abattoir.  The  Editor  meets 
there  with  at  least  half  a  dozen  cases  every  year,  and  he  has 
several  times  received  affected  livers  from  various  parts  of  the 
country.  He  has  never  met,  however,  with  a  case  in  the  sheep. 
The  necrotic  lesions  described  by  Schmorl  about  the  head  and 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  143 

anterior  mucous  membranes  of  rabbits  are  apparently  due 
to  the  same  bacillus ;  but  in  this  form  the  disease  is  of  little  im- 
portance, since  it  was  confined  to  the  animals  of  an  experimental 
institution.  Hamilton  has  described  this  bacterial  necrosis 
in  the  liver  of  a  donkey.  It  is  not  to  be  understood,  however, 
that  necrosis  is  always  bacterial  in  origin.  It  may  occur  from 
injuries  and  interference  with  nutrition  without  the  inter- 
vention of  microbes. 

The  microbe.  —  The  bacillus  of  necrosis,  the  most  important 
to  the  Meat  Inspector,  assumes  more  than  one  form.  The 
elements  are  composed  of  rods  measuring  3  to  4  //,  x  •  8,  and  long 
unsegmented  threads  from  40  to  100  p  in  length.  Coccus  forms 
are  also  described,  but  it  is  not  clear  that  they  constitute 
a  form  of  the  same  microbe.  Cocci  only  were  present  in 
M'Fadyean's  case  in  the  sheep,  and  in  the  lesions  of  the 
donkey's  liver  described  by  Hamilton. 

The  micro-organism  is  apparently  saprophytic  in  character, 
and  can  only  exceptionally  become  pathogenic  without  the 
aid  of  a  predisposing  influence,  such  as  a  mixed  infection. 

The  elements  stain  best  by  Kuhne's  or  Loffler's  methods, 
but  in  the  well-developed  lesions  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
put  them  in  evidence.  MTadyeaii  obtained  his  best  prepara- 
tions by  staining  sections  of  fresh  (imhardened)  livers  containing 
recent  lesions.  The  microbes  are  found  just  outside  the  dead 
area. 

Lesions.  — Necrotic  tissue  is  much  paler  than  normal,  and  it 
is  firmer  owing  to  coagulation  of  its  albumin.  On  the  surface 
of  the  body  it  becomes  white,  dry,  and  leathery. 

Liver.  —  Disseminated  necrosis  is  the  name  given  by 
M'Fadyean  to  the  bacterial  lesion  in  the  liver  of  the  ox.  In 
95  per  cent,  of  the  cases  observed  by  the  Editor  the  necrosis 
was  accompanied  by  fatty  infiltration  of  the  liver  tissue, 
and  by  cirrhosis  due  to  the  presence  of  flukes  in  the  bile 
ducts. 

The  organ  in  such  cases  is  much  enlarged.  It  is  harder 
than  normal,  and  the  section  is  of  a  yellowish  red  colour.  The 


1 44  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

liver,  however,  may  show  no  other  change  than  that  of  multiple 
necrosis.  Under  the  capsule  and  in  the  substance  of  the  organ, 
pale  greyish  or  yellow  areas  are  seen,  which  in  shape  approach 
the  circular.  They  are  firmer  than  the  normal  liver  tissue, 
from  which  they  are  abruptly  marked  off  by  an  irregular  line. 


FIG.  18. — Section  of  the  liver  of  an  ox,  showing  the  lesions  of  bacterial  necrosis. 

— M'FADYEAN. 


The  areas  on  the  surface  are  hardly  raised  above  its  level.  In 
size  they  vary  from  that  of  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  shilling. 
Sometimes  two  neighbouring  patches  have  come  into  contact 
and  formed  a  figure  of  eight.  Their  number  varies  from  one 
or  two  to  several  dozens. 

Under  the  microscope  the  liver  structure  is  beyond  recog- 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  145 

nition  in  the  dead  parts,  except  in  the  most  recent  lesions.  In 
these  the  cell  outlines  can  be  dimly  seen.  The  protoplasm 
of  the  dead  cells  is  granular.  Their  nuclei  do  not  take  up  the 
nuclear  stains,  but  those  of  a  few  leucocytes  can  be  made  out. 
The  line  of  separation  from  the  normal  tissue  is  marked  by  a 
dense  collection  of  phagocyte  cells  whose  nuclei  stain  deeply. 
Many  of  the  liver  cells  in  other  parts  are  infiltrated  by  fat,  and 
some  are  replaced  by  fibrous  tissue,  but  the  latter  lesions  have 
no  direct  connection  with  the  necrosis. 

Inspection.—  There  is  no  direct  evidence  to  show  that  any 
harm  would  follow  if  a  human  being  were  to  partake  of  organs 
showing  the  above  lesions;  but,  according  to  Schmorl,  the  necrosis 
bacillus,  aided  by  the  microbes  of  suppuration,  sometimes  retards 
the  healing  process  of  wounds  in  man.  The  damaged  organs, 
then,  might  possibly  occasion  trouble  if  used  for  food.  Necrosis, 
however,  no  matter  what  the  cause  be,  renders  the  affected 
parts  unfit  for  sale,  and  on  this  account  alone  the  inspector 
is  justified  in  seizing  them.  In  the  case  of  the  liver,  the  whole 
organ  should  be  seized.  As  the  lesions  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
remain  local,  no  harm  can  result  from  passing  the  carcases 
after  they  have  been  removed.  Such  carcases  are  often  of  very 
good  quality. 

SWINE  FEVER 
HOG  CHOLERA  (America) 

A  contagious  disease  of  swine,  caused  by  the  bacillus  of 
swine  fever. 

It  is  characterised  by  an  erythematous  eruption  on  the 
skin,  the  formation  of  ulcers  on  the  alimentary  tract,  and  in 
the  acute  stages  by  intoxication. 

Animals  affected.  —  Swine  fever,  as  met  with  in  this  country, 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  disease  special  to  the  pig,  since  we 
never  hear  of  it  attacking  other  species,  although  the  oppor- 
tunities for  such  an  accident  occurring  must  be  frequent. 
Galtier,  however,  says  that  he  has  seen  it  transmitted  to  the 
10 


1 46  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

sheep  and  goat.  The  same  authority  also  claims  to  have  in- 
fected oxen,  dogs,  horses,  and  fowls.  Nocard  reports  the 
accidental  transmission  of  the  disease  to  fowls.  Young  pigs 
are  most  susceptible  to  the  disease. 

The  microbe.  —  According  to  the  most  recent  researches  of 
M'Fadyean,  the  microbe  of  swine  fever  is  a  bacillus  measuring 
1-2  //,  x  •  G,  rounded  at  its  ends,  and  motile.  It  can  be  stained 
by  the  methyl-blue  preparations,  and  some  of  the  rods  show 
polar  staining.  It  does  not  stain  by  Gram's  method.  Pre- 


FIG.  19. — Bacillus  of  swine  fever  (Zeiss,  oil  immersion, 
TV). — M 'FAD  YE  AN. 

parations  are  best  obtained  in  the  acute  stages  from  the  fresh 
mesenteric  glands. 

Lesions.— The  principal  lesions  are  found  in  connection 
with  the  alimentary  tract.  In  acute  cases  of  short  duration 
they  are  not  marked.  If  the  cases  are  isolated,  considerable 
difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  making  a  diagnosis.  There  is 
generally  a  purple  discoloration  on  the  skin  of  the  hocks,  the 
ears,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  abdomen.  The  alimentary 
mucous  membrane  showrs  areas  of  congestion,  maybe  in  the 
pharynx,  the  stomach,  and  the  small  or  large  intestines. 

The  congested  parts  vary  in  colour  from  a  reddish  tinge  to  a 


PLATE  xir 


External  surface  of  Bar  of  Pig,  showing  discolouration  seen  in  Swine  Fever. 


2. 
* 


Ileo-csecal  Valve  of  young  Pig, 
showing  plugged  Gland  Follicles 
a,  a,  a,  and  one  Ulcer  at  base  6. 
L  A  detached  plug. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  147 

hsemorrhagic  colour,  and  in  size  from  a  pin-head  to  a  large  area. 
Sometimes  in  the  early  stages  there  are  patches  or  areas 
of  diphtheritic  inflammation  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
small  intestine,  in  the  caecum  and  the  colon. 

The  most  characteristic  lesion,  however,  is  the  swine  fever 
ulcer.  The  action  of  the  bacillus  is  to  produce  necrosis  of  the 
tissues.  This  necrosis  begins  as  a  small  diphtheritic  (necrotic) 
patch  about  the  size  of  a  split-pea,  and  it  spreads  outwards 


FIG.  20. — Swine  fever  ulcers  on  large  intestine  of  pig. 

in  a  circular  manner.  The  necrotic  patch  is  by  and  by  cast 
off,  leaving  an  ulcer.  The  ulcers  commonly  vary  in  size  from 
that  of  a  threepenny  piece  to  that  of  a  shilling,  but  they  may 
be  much  larger.  The  larger  ones  are  distinctly  raised  and 
rounded  at  the  margin.  The  necrotic  tissue  in  the  centre 
generally  becomes  black  from  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  iron. 
The  ulcer  may  heal,  leaving  a  cicatrix.  This  ulceration  seldom 
extends  beyond  the  muscular  coats,  and  perforation  of  the 
bowel  is  very  uncommon.  In  old  cases  the  intestinal  wall 


1 48  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

becomes  thickened,  and  ulcerating  nodules  may  be  found  pro- 
jecting into  the  tube.  The  commonest  site  of  the  ulcers  is  the 
large  bowel,  particularly  the  caecum  in  the  region  of  the  ileo- 
caecal  valve.  They  are  also  very  often  found  in  the  colon,  and 
they  may  extend  right  back  to  the  rectum.  In.  the  small  in- 
testine they  are  sometimes  found  at  the  posterior  part.-  Barely 
are  they  seen  in  the  stomach,  and  it  is  exceptional  to  find  them 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue  or  on  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  cheeks. 

The  histological  examination  of  the  lesions  shows  that  at 
the  seats  of  diphtheritic  inflammation  the  epithelial  cells  are 
dead.  Many  of  the  glands  have  lost  their  epithelial  lining, 
and  they  contain  a  multitude  of  different  microbes.  The 
glands  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  frequently  those  of  other 
regions,  are  congested  (strawberry  glands).  Sometimes  they 
show  necrotic  patches.  The  cavity  may  contain  an  excess  of 
fluid. 

Liver. —The  liver  may  show  nothing  more  than  cloudy 
swelling  of  its  cells,  but  sometimes  the  organ  is  the  seat  of  a 
multiple  necrosis,  a  lesion  which  resembles  that  of  tuberculosis. 

According  to  MTadyean,  swine  fever  bacilli  are  found  in 
the  necrotic  areas. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  is  usually  normal,  but  occasionally  one 
finds  necrotic  patches  on  its  substance. 

Kidneys.— The  kidneys  may  be  normal,  but  numerous 
small  haemorrhages  are  often  found  in  the  substance,  and 
occasionally  a  large  amount  of  coagulated  blood  is  discovered 
in  the  pelvis.  Parenchymatous  inflammation  has  also  been 
described. 

Lungs  and  pleura.— In  cases  of  swrine  fever  the  lungs  are 
often  found  to  be  consolidated.  The  pleura  is  sometimes  in- 
flamed, and  the  chest  may  contain  fluid.  The  pneumonia 
may  be  either  lobar  or  lobular,  but  according  to  MTadyean  it 
is  very  seldom  due  to  the  swine  fever  bacillus.  The  probability 
is  that  the  pneumonia  is  in  most  cases  a  complication  due  to 
the  action  of  saprophytic  germs  on  an  enfeebled  organism. 


PLATE  xm. 


Section  of  Lymphatic  Gland. 
Swine  Fever. 


• 


Ecchymosis  on  the  Endocardium  of 
Pig.    Swine  Fever. 


• 


I 


Section  through  Muscle  of  Pig  (Swine  Fever),  showing  extravasation 
of  blood  into  the  Muscle,  Connective  Tissue,  and  Fat. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  149 

The  Editor  has  seen  many  cases  in  which  the  lung  lesions  were 
due  to  strongyli  (8.  paradoxus).  The  true  swine  fever  lesion 
of  the  lung  is  a  necrosis. 

Heart.— The  muscle  of  the  organ  is  very  little  altered,  but 
petechial  haemorrhages  may  be  found  011  its  membranes. 

Inspection.  —  As  this  disease  is  not  communicable  to  human 
beings,  the  inspection  resolves  itself  into  a  question  of  what  is 
marketable  and  what  is  not.  The  carcases  of  pigs  killed  in  the 
earliest  stages  often  set  firmly  and  present  no  abnormal  appear- 
ance. Such  carcases  might  be  passed  without  detriment  to 
the  health  or  fastidiousness  of  the  consumer.  When  the  disease 
is  developed,  however,  small  haemorrhages  may  be  found  under 
the  skin  and  in  the  muscles  ;  the  flesh  is  fevered,  flabby,  and 
often  cedematous.  The  usual  practice  is  to  seize  carcases  of  the 
latter  description  as  well  as  those  which  are  emaciated.  Pouchet 
and  others  have  reported  cases  of  poisoning  in  human  beings 
from  eating  the  flesh  of  pigs  killed  while  suffering  from  swine 
fever,  but  it  is  very  far  from  certain  that  the  swine  fever  was 
actually  to  blame. 

Application  of  Contagious  Diseases  of  Animals  Act.— The 
Swine  Fever  Order  of  1894  (sec.  7)  forbids  the  utilisation  of  the 
flesh  as  food,  by  requiring  the  carcase  of  a  pig  affected  with  or 
suspected  of  swine  fever  at  the  time  of  its  death  to  be  destroyed. 
Suspected  does  not  apply  here  to  animals  which  have  been 
killed  and  found  healthy,  although  they  have  been  in  contact 
with  the  sick. 

SWINE  ERYSIPELAS 

This  is  a  disease  peculiar  to  swine,  and  caused  by  the 
entrance  into  the  body  of  the  bacillus  of  Swine  Erysipelas,  or 
Rouget  du  Pore  of  the  French  veterinarians. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  swine  erysipelas  is  described 
as  virulent  and  contagious,  but  that  description  does  not  suit 
the  disease  as  \ve  meet  with  it  in  this  country.  Here  it  is  not 
at  all  common.  Moreover,  nearly  all  the  cases  which  have  been 


1 5  o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

recorded  have  occurred  sporadically.  In  the  acute  or  septi- 
caemic  forms  the  disease  is  characterised  by  fever,  intoxication, 
and  gastro-enteritis.  In  the  more  chronic  forms  a  rash 
appears  on  the  skin,  and  vegetations  frequently  form  on 
the  cardiac  valves. 

Animals  affected.  -The  disease  is  met  with  mostly  in  adult 
pigs;  young  animals  up  to  about  four  months  are  said  to 
possess  a  marked  degree  of  immunity. 

The  microbe.  -  The  microbe  is  a  fine  rod-like  bacillus, 
measuring  about  2  /*  x  -3.  It  is  rounded  at  the  ends,  iion- 
motile,  and  stains  equally  throughout.  It  stains  by  the  methyl- 
blue  preparations  and  by  Gram's  method.  It  is  found  in  the 
blood  in  small  numbers,  but  preparations  are  best  made  from 
the  spleen,  the  Imphatic  glands,  or  bone-marrow. 

Lesions.  — In  acute  forms,  where  death  has  supervened  in 
a  few  hours,  there  may  be  no  skin  eruption  (Rouget  blanc). 
Usually,  however,  there  is  a  reddish  or  violet  rash  on  the  same 
regions  as  in  swine  fever.  This  rash  is  sometimes  spot-like.1 
In  recovering  cases  the  skin  over  the  part  may  slough.  Under 
the  skin  and  in  the  muscles  one  finds  small  haemorrhages. 

The  muscles  are  usually  paler  than  normal  in  the  parts 
where  there  are  no  haemorrhages.  They  are  often  flaccid, 
cedematous,  and  soapy  to  the  feel,  if  the  pig  has  died  or 
been  killed  in  the  acute  stages.  The  fat,  too,  does  not  set 
firmly. 

Stomach  and  intestines.— The  gastric  and  intestinal  mem- 
branes are  swollen  and  congested.  In  the  region  of  Peyer's 
patches  the  engorgement  is  specially  marked.  No  distinct 
ulcers  are  found,  but  the  membrane  may  show  abrasions.  The 

1  In  twenty-one  cases  diagnosed  as  urticaria  of  swine,  Jenson  found  the 
bacillus  of  swine  erysipelas  in  the  skin  lesions.  In  some  of  the  cases,  vegetations 
were  present  on  the  cardiac  valves,  and  in  others  the  bacilli  were  found  in  the 
spleen.  Jensen  says  that  many  of  the  Danish  veterinary  surgeons  look  upon 
urticaria  of  swine  as  a  contagious  disease.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  if 
similar  bacilli  are  present  in  the  lesions  of  the  skin  in  cases  of  urticaria  of  swine 
in  this  country,  in  which  swine  erysipelas  in  its  virulent  form  is  almost  never 
met  with. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  151 

peritoneum  shows  ecchymoses,  and  the  abdominal  cavity  may 
contain  an  excess  of  fluid. 

Spleen. —The  spleen  is  engorged  and  softened.  This  lesion 
might  easily  raise  a  suspicion  of  anthrax,  but  in  swine  erysipelas 
swelling  of  the  throat  is  absent.  The  bacteriological  examina- 
tion of  the  spleen-pulp  will  in  most  cases  put  the  diagnosis 
beyond  doubt. 

Liver.— The  liver  may  be  little  altered,  or  it  may  be  en- 
gorged. 

Kidneys.— The  kidneys  often  show  multiple  small  haemor- 
rhages in  their  substances. 

Glands.  -The  glands  are  swollen  and  congested. 

Lungs.  -In  the  acute  stages  the  lungs  are  congested.  The 
chest  cavity  may  contain  an  excess  of  fluid,  and  the  serous 
membranes  show  ecchymoses. 

Heart.  -In  the  more  chronic  form,  such  as  that  met  with 
in  this  country,  vegetations  form  on  the  cardiac  valves,  and 
all  the  results  of  valvular  disease  may  follow.  The  valves  on 
the  left  side  are  most  frequently  affected.  The  lesion  is  caused 
by  the  bacillus  of  swine  erysipelas,  which  may  be  demonstrated 
in  the  superficial  layers  of  the  vegetations. 

Inspection.  —This  disease  is  not  communicable  to  human 
beings,  so  that  the  inspector,  without  fear  of  mishap  to  the 
consumer,  may  pass  those  carcases  which  are  marketable.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  bacillus  invades  the 
blood  stream,  so  that  the  flesh  may  be  and  often  is  virulent, 
as  far  as  the  pig  is  concerned.  There  is  a  possibility  of  fresh 
centres  of  the  disease  being  established  in  piggeries  by  the 
uncontrolled  sale  of  pork  from  affected  pigs;  for,. as  every  one 
knows,  the  parings  from  the  kitchen  and  the  flesh  factories 
often  find  their  way  into  the  pig's  pail.  The  authorities,  how- 
ever, would  be  acting  ultra  vires  if  on  the  latter  grounds  they 
withdrew  the  flesh  from  the  market,  since  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture has  as  yet  applied  110  restrictions. 

If  the  animals  have  been  slaughtered  in  the  initial  stage  of 
a  less  acute  attack,  the  flesh  may  be  quite  marketable.  Ostertag, 


1 5  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

howeyer,  says  that  it  is  liable  to  putrefy  quickly,  and  advises 
that  the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  slaughter  be  taken  into 
account  before  the  flesh  is  passed.  In  this  country,  of  course, 
one  would  have  no  guarantee  that  the  flesh  would  pass 
immediately  into  consumption  after  it  left  the  abattoir.  In 
the  later  stages  of  the  disease  the  flesh  is  fevered,  and  shows 
haemorrhages  into  the  tissues.  Such  carcases  are  unmarket- 
able. When  the  heart  lesion  is  all  the  evidence  that  remains, 
the  carcase  is  usually  fit  for  human  food,  unless  there  be  marked 
emaciation.  In  the  absence  of  the  viscera  one  may  with 
advantage  make  a  bacterialogical  examination  of  the  bone- 
marrow. 


CONTAGIOUS  PNEUMONIA  OF  SWINE 

This  is  the  disease  which  in  Germany  is  known  as  Schweine- 
seuche,  and  in  America  as  swine  plague.  It  is  characterised  by 
inflammation  of  the  lungs  and  alterations  of  a  septicaemic  type 
in  other  organs.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  disease  exists  in  this 
country. 

Animals  affected.— The  pig  is  the  only  animal  which  con- 
tracts the  disease  naturally. 

The  microbe.  —  According  to  Loffler  and  Schutz,  this  disease 
is  caused  by  an  oval  bacillus  measuring  from  1  to  2  yu,  x  •  5.  It 
belongs  to  the  somewhat  numerous  class  of  micro-organisms 
of  the  fowl  cholera  bacillus  type,  the  characteristic  of  which  is 
that  the  bacilli  stain  at  their  poles  and  margins,  while  an  un- 
coloured  space  is  left  in  the  centre.  It  stains  by  Loffler's  or 
Kiihiie's  blue  preparations,  but  Gram's  method  fails.  Pre- 
parations are  best  obtained  from  the  lung  lesions,  the  exudations, 
and  the  bronchial  lymph  glands. 

Lesions.—  The  skin  shows  patches  of  discoloration  as  in  the 
other  contagious  diseases  of  swine.  The  chief  changes,  how- 
ever, are  found  in  the  lungs  and  pleura. 

Lungs.— They  show  patches  of  hepatisation,  varying  in  size 
from  a  pea  to  much  larger.  These  consolidated  areas  show  a 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  153 

great  tendency  to  undergo  necrosis  in  the  centre ;  they  may 
even  become  caseous. 

Pleura.  — On  the  pleura  one  finds  areas  of  fibrinous  inflam- 
mation, which  usually  correspond  to  the  consolidated  parts  of 
the  lung.  An  exudate  is  present  in  the  chest  cavity.  The 
pericardium  often  shows  alterations  similar  to  those  found  on 
the  pleura.  Schiitz  has  also  found  caseous  patches  on  the 
tonsils,  in  the  bones  and  lymph  glands  of  some  cases. 

Inspection.  —  Schweineseuche  has  never  been  communi- 
cated to  human  beings,  although  ample  opportunity  for  such 
an  accident  to  occur,  were  it  possible,  has  existed  in  Germany. 

Ostertag  advises  that  the  flesh  of  pigs  be  absolutely  con- 
demned, when,  in  addition  to  grave  lesions  on  the  pleura, 
icterus  is  present. 

This  disease  is  not  scheduled  under  the  Contagious  Diseases 
(Animals)  Act. 


CONTAGIOUS  PLEURO-PNEUMONIA  OF  CATTLE 

A  contagious  disease  peculiar  to  the  ox,  and  characterised 
by  inflammatory  changes  in  the  lungs  and  on  the  pleurse. 

The  microbe.— The  causal  microbe  of  this  disease  has  been 
the  object  of  much  fruitless  search. 

According  to  Nocard,  it  is  so  small  that  one  can  just  see  it  as 
a  refractile  point  when  the  highest  magnifying  powers  are  used. 
He  obtained  cultures  of  this  almost  infinitesimal  object  by 
inoculating  a  special  medium,  which  was  then  enclosed  in 
collodion  capsules  and  inserted  into  the  peritoneal  cavities  of 
rabbits.  After  several  weeks'  incubation  in  this  way,  he  was 
able,  by  inoculating  the  culture  under  the  skin  of  oxen,  to  pro- 
duce local  lesions  similar  to  those  caused  by  injection  of  the 
virulent  lymph  obtained  from  natural  cases. 

Lesions.— They  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  chest 
organs,  although  one  may  occasionally  meet  with  local  cutan- 
eous swellings  and  arthritis.  The  tissue  in  front  of  the  chest 


'54 


ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 


is  often  oedematous.  On  opening  the  chest  one  often  finds  a 
considerable  amount  of  greyish  turbid  fluid  inside.  The  pleura 
in  certain  parts  is  opaque,  thickened,  and  covered  with  a  dense 
false  membrane  of  a  yellowish  colour.  The  two  surfaces  may 
be  adherent.  Pericarditis  may  be  present.  The  glands  are 
swollen  and  oedematous. 

The  lung  lesion  varies  in  extent.    There  may  be  only  a 
small  area  affected,  or  the  greater  part  of  both  lungs  may  be 


FIG.  21. — Section  of  lung  showing  the  lesions  of  contagious  pleuro- 
pneiimonia.  — WALLEY. 

a,  Subpleural  tissue  distended  by  lymph. 

b,  Dilated  veins  in  interlobular  septa. 

c,  Interlobular  tissue. 

d,  Consolidated  lobule. 

consolidated.  Emphysema  is  present  in  the  still  open  parts, 
and  there  may  be  areas  of  hsemorrhagic  infarction.  The  con- 
solidated areas  stand  out  prominently;  they  are  airless,  and  they 
sink  in  water.  On  section  the  most  evident  change  is  great 
thickening  of  the  interlobular  septa  and  peribronchial  tissue. 
This  is  due  to  distension  of  the  lymphatic  vessels,  from  which 
a  straw-coloured  lymph  is  discharged.  The  smaller  tubes  are 
often  plugged  by  a  fibrinous  exudate.  The  hepatised  lobules 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  155 

are  of  different  colours.  Some  are  brick-red,  others  are  greyish- 
yellow  or  greyish-red,  and  when  a  very  large  number  of  red 
cells  have  been  thrown  out  into  the  aveoli  the  lobules  are 
dark  red,  like  venous  blood.  These  changes  give  the  section 
a  marbled  appearance.  In  old  cases  one  finds  necrosed 
areas  of  varying  size,  which  are  often  encapsuled  by  fibrous 
tissue. 

The  only  other  condition  which  resembles  that  of  contagious 
pleuro-pneumoiiia  is  the  so-called  septic  pneumonia  seen  in 
recentry  calved  cows.  In  the  latter  cases,  however,  the  marbling 
is  not  so  distinct,  the  septa  are  usually  less  distended,  the  straw- 
coloured  lymph  is  absent,  the  tissue  is  very  oadematous,  and  it 
usually  stinks.  The  microscopic  appearance  is  less  characteristic 
than  the  macroscopic.  The  interlobular,  peribronchial,  and 
perivascular  lymphatics  are  much  distended.  The  septa  are 
invaded  at  their  margins  by  round  cells,  but  only  in  the  very 
chronic  cases  does  one  find  fibrous  proliferation. 

The  contents  of  the  alveoli  vary.  Those  near  the  septa 
contain  a  great  deal  of  fibrin,  but  very  few  cells.  Others  con- 
tain leucocytes,  red  cells,  and  fibrin  in  varying  proportion; 
a  few  detached  epithelial  cells  may  be  present.  In  the  very 
red-coloured  lobules  and  the  areas  of  h«emorrhagic  infarction, 
one  finds  a  dense  collection  of  red  blood  corpuscles.  Some  of 
the  blood  vessels  contain  clots.  Perhaps  the  most  characteristic 
feature  of  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  is  the  amount  of  fibrin 
present  in  the  exudate.  In  the  other  forms  of  pneumonia  one 
seldom  finds  much  fibrin. 

Inspection.— It  is  unlikely  that  pleuro-pneumonia  will  ever 
again  gain  a  serious  footing  in  this  country,  if  the  present 
regulations  continue  to  exist.  During  the  ravages  of  the 
disease  the  slaughter  order  was  mercilessly  applied,  and  one 
had  ample  opportunity  of  observing  the  flesh  in  all  stages 
of  the  malady. 

In  the  acute  stages  the  flesh  is  fevered  and  soapy.  It  does 
not  set  well.  When  a  large  area  of  lung  is  consolidated,  and 
when  there  is  much  fluid  in  the  chest  or  pericardium,  the  flesh 


1 5  6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

is  oedematous  and  flabby.  This  condition  is  seen  well  at  the 
anterior  and  lower  part  of  the  chest,  and  this  led  to  the 
term  "  wet  goat "  being  applied  to  the  disease  by  Edinburgh 
fleshers. 

In  the  above  conditions  the  flesh  is  unmarketable.  When 
the  disease  has  reached  the  chronic  stage,  and  the  lesions  are 
not  great  in  extent,  the  flesh  is  normal  in  appearance,  and  may 
be  passed  if  the  carcase  is  not  emaciated.  The  universal  rule 
in  Edinburgh  was  to  pass  carcases  when  the  flesh  showed  no 
departure  from  the  normal.  The  affected  portions  of  the 
pleurae  were  removed  by  stripping.  In  bad  cases,  the  portion 
of  the  fore-quarter  contiguous  to  the  pleuritic  lesion,  or  even 
the  whole  quarter,  was  retained. 


FOOT  AND  MOUTH  DISEASE 
ECZEMA  EPIZOOTICA 

A  contagious  and  inoculable  disease,  characterised  by  fever 
and  the  appearance  of  a  vesicular  eruption  on  different  parts 
of  the  body. 

Animals  affected.  —  All  animals  may  be  infected,  but  the 
disease  is  mostly  seen  in  those  Avhose  flesh  is  used  for  human 
food.  The  ox  is  most  frequently  attacked,  the  sheep  and  pig 
suffer  less  often.  It  is  transmissible  to  man. 

The  mierofo.— Notwithstanding  the  numerous  researches 
of  many  investigators  who  have  worked  at  the  bacteriology 
of  this  disease,  the  specific  agent  remains  to  be  discovered. 
That  it  is  not  due  to  a  germ  of  ordinary  size  is  shown  by 
the  recent  inquiries  of  I^ffler  and  Frosch,  who  found  that  the 
infecting  agent  is  not  retained  in  the  pores  of  a  porcelain 
filter. 

Lesions.— The  lesions  are  found  chiefly  in  connection  with 
the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  pad  and  tongue,  on  the 
skin  between  the  clavs,  around  the  coronet  and  at  the  base 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  157 

of  the  supernumerary  digits.  In  the  cow  the  skin  of  the 
udder  and  teats  is  a  favourite  seat  of  the  eruption.  The 
eruption  may,  however,  appear  on  any  mucous  membrane ; 
for  instance,  on  the  alimentary  or  bronchial,  or  on  the  parts 
of  the  body  where  the  skin  is  thin. 

In  the  earlier  stages  the  part  is  swollen  and  congested ; 
later  a  vesicle,  commonly  about  the  size  of  a  florin,  appears. 
One  usually  finds,  however,  that  the  vesicle  has  burst.  The 
remains  of  the  membrane,  white  and  bleached-looking,  covers 
a  raw  red  sore.  Often  the  cutaneous  sores  are  suppurating, 
and  in  old  cases  the  hoof  may  be  separating  from  above  down- 


FIG.  22. — Tongue  and  pad  of  ox,  showing  the  lesions  of  foot  and 
mouth  disease. 

wards.  In  the  more  severe  cases  there  may  be  abscesses  in 
the  lungs  and  liver,  pneumonia,  and  lesions  on  the  stomach 
and  bowel. 

In  all  stomachs  there  may  be  patches  of  congestion,  and 
even  ulceration.  The  small  bowel  may  also  be  congested  and 
ecchymosed.  In  very  bad  cases  all  the  appearances  of  septi- 
csemia  are  present. 

Inspection.— There  is  no  case  on  record  of  foot  and  mouth 
disease  having  been  contracted  by  human  beings  through 
eating  the  flesh  of  affected  animals,  although  there  is  a  slight 
danger  of  the  butcher  being  inoculated  through  wounds.  Most 
of  the  recorded  cases  of  transmission  have  been  due  to  drinking 
milk  contaminated  by  the  virus,  but  they  are  few  in  comparison 


158 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


with  the  number  of  cows  attacked  during  an  outbreak.  The 
present  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  would  debar 
affected  animals  from  being  moved  to  the  abattoir;  but  in 
former  times  many  were  slaughtered  for  food.  The  carcases  of 
these  animals  were  usually  of  good  quality,  and  quite  market- 
able after  the  parts  containing  lesions  had  been  removed. 

II 


FIG.  23. — Foot  of  ox  affected  with  foot  and  mouth 

disease.  —  WALLEY. 

a,  Raw  surface  at  base  of  supernumerary  digits. 
6,  Horn  beginning  to  separate, 
c,  Ruptured  vesicle. 

In  cases  of  a  malignant  type,  and  in  those  in  which  the 
temperature  has  been  high,  the  flesh  is  fevered,  and  the  carcase 
is  like  that  of  an  animal  which  has  suffered  from  septicaemia. 
A  carcase  of  this  description  would  call  for  seizure  apart 
altogether  from  the  disease  under  discussion. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  159 

VARIOLA 
Pox 

The  term  Variola  is  applied  to  a  class  of  contagious  dis- 
eases of  animals,  which  is  characterised  by  fever  and  a  vesico- 
pustular  eruption. 

Animals  affected.-  Variolous  diseases  have  been  described 
in  all  the  domesticated  animals,  and  even  in  poultry.  Horse 
pox  (V.  equina),  cow-pox  (V.  vaccina),  the  pox  of  the  goat  and 
that  of  the  camel,  are  apparently  the  same  disease.  Sheep-pox 
(V.  ovina,)  is  a  different  disease,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  sheep. 
The  variola  of  the  pig  (V.  suilla)  is  rare,  and  has  not  been  the 
subject  of  much  study.  Trasbot  considers  it  une  mala  die 
propre.  Friedberger  and  Frohner  state  that  it  originates  from 
small-pox  of  man.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  pigs  can 
1)0  experimentally  infected  with  cow-pox  (Chauveau),  and  that 
Grerlach  has  communicated  V.  suilla  to  the  goat.  The  cases 
described  as  variola  in  poultry  seem  to  have  been  due  to 
gregarinw ;  fowls  are  refactory  to  inoculation  with  the  vaccine 
virus. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss  the  much-vexed  question  of 
the  identity  of  cow-pox  with  small-pox  of  man  ;  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  the  bulk  of  evidence  points  to  them  being  two  different, 
though  neighbouring  diseases,  and  that  the  disease  of  the  horse's 
legs,  characterised  by  elephantiasis  and  seborrhoea,  has  usually 
nothing  to  do  with  horse-pox,  although  the  horse-pox  eruption 
on  the  limbs  may  end  in  a  somewhat  similar  condition. 

The  microbe.— No  specific  infecting  agent  has  as  yet  been 
demonstrated  to  be  the  cause  of  variola  in  any  animal. 

Lesions.— Vaccinia  is  a  benign  disease.  It  is  not  now  com- 
monly met  with,  except  in  certain  parts  of  England.  In  the 
cow  the  eruption  is  met  with  mainly  on  the  teats  and  udder ;  the 
mucous  membranes  and  the  skin  of  the  body  are  seldom  the  seats 
of  lesions ;  a  generalised  eruption  is  exceptionally  met  with. 
In  the  male  the  eruption  appears  on  the  scrotum.  In  the  calf 


160  MEAT  INSPECTION 

it  is  found  on  the  muzzle.  In  the  pig  the  eruption  occurs  on 
the  snout  and  the  mammae;  sometimes  it  is  generalised. 

On  the  skin  it  begins  by  redness  and  swelling.  This  is 
followed  usually  by  a  papule  about  the  size  of  a  lentil,  which 
becomes  vesicular  at  its  summit,  then  bursts.  A  thick  yellow 
or  blood-tinged  lymph  exudes  and  forms  a  brownish  crust. 
This  is  the  so-called  pustule.  The  discharge,  however,  is  not 
pus  in  the  popular  sense,  unless  the  organisms  of  suppuration 
have  gained  access  to  the  wounds.  The  eruption  in  its  dry 
stage  consists  of  a  central  scab,  slightly  raised,  and  a  peripheral 
bluish-looking  ring  of  new  epithelium.  The  skin  outside  this 
is  usually  of  a  rosy  tint.  On  the  thinner  mucous  membranes 
the  eruption  is  more  vesicular  in  character.  By  mechanical 
irritation  the  pustules  may  have  been  converted  into  large 
sores. 

Inspection.— It  is  by  direct  inoculation  that  man  contracts 
vaccinia.  Variolous  cases  seldom  come  into  our  abattoirs,  nor 
is  much  inspection  called  for  in  connection  with  them.  The  blood 
and  lymph,  are  not  virulent,  unless  they  be  taken  from  the  lesions. 
Moreover,  the  virulence  is  easily  destroyed  by  heat.  The  flesh 
is  usually  of  good  aspect,  and  may  be  passed  after  the  parts  show- 
ing the  eruption  have  been  removed.  This  is  generally  done 
in  the  natural  course  of  dressing. 

VARIOLA  OVINA 

This  disease  calls  for  special  remark,  for  although  Great 
Britain  has  been  free  from  it  since  1862,  the  disease  still 
exists  in  countries  from  which  mutton  may  be  imported.  Some 
breeds  of  sheep  suffer  but  little  from  an  attack;  others  are 
fatally  affected.  The  eruption  appears  generally  on  the  external 
mucous  membranes  and  on  the  parts  of  the  body  where  the 
wool  is  thin.  The  papules  vary  in  size  from  a  lentil  to  a  six- 
penny piece ;  they  are  flat  and  hard.  In  malignant  cases  the 
alimentary  and  respiratory  membranes  are  ecchymosed,  the 
glands  are  congested,  and  all  the  signs  of  septicaemia  are  present. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  161 

The  lungs  often  show  patches  of  consolidation,  they  may  even 
be  gangrenous. 

Inspection.—  V.  Ovina  is  not  transmissible  to  man.  Attempts 
to  experimentally  infect  human  beings  have  failed  (Nocard). 
Bosc  and  Pourquier,  however,  communicated  to  the  Moscow 
Congress  of  1897  a  supposed  case  of  transmission  to  a  woman 
by  the  accidental  inoculation  of  sores  on  the  hands. 

In  malignant  cases  the  flesh  is  fevered,  and  small  haemor- 
rhages are  found  under  the  skin  and  on  the  serous  membranes. 
The  carcase  is  of  bad  aspect  and  does  not  set  well.  Such  car- 
cases are  unmarketable,  and  should  be  condemned.  In  the 
milder  cases  the  flesh  is  usually  good,  and  may  be  passed  after 
the  lesions  have  been  removed. 


CATTLE  PLAGUE 
RINDERPEST 

Cattle  plague  is  a  contagious  eruptive  fever  caused  by  an 
undetermined  specific  agent. 

Animals  affected.— Oxen  are  by  far  the  most  frequently 
attacked.  Sheep  and  goats  are  less  often  the  victims  of  the 
disease.  Some  races  of  pigs  (Chinese)  are  susceptible  to 
inoculation,  and  they  also  take  the  disease  naturally.  Wild 
ruminants  are  susceptible,  and,  according  to  Leblanc,  the 
camel  may  suffer  from  rinderpest.  Man,  the  horse,  and  the 
dog,  are  immune. 

The  microbe.— Notwithstanding  the  researches  of  Semmer 
and  Klebs,  Nocard,  Koch,  Eddington,  and  many  others,  the 
causal  agent  of  rinderpest  remains  undiscovered. 

Lesions.— The  characteristic  lesions  of  cattle  plague  are 
localised  on  the  mucous  membranes,  especially  on  that  of  the 
alimentary  tract.  Sometimes  there  is  an  eruption  on  the  skin. 
In  the  mouth  one  finds  patches  of  intense  congestion  and 
desquamatioii.  They  are  particularly  evident  inside  the  lips, 
at  the  posterior  part  of  the  mouth,  and  in  the  fauces.  The 
ii 


1 62  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

first  three  stomachs  of  the  ruminant  may  show  patches  of 
congestion.  The  abomasum  towards  the  pylorus  shows  haemor- 
rhagic  patches,  and  there  may  be  erosions  and  an  exudate  on 
its  mucous  surface. 

In  the  small  intestines  the  mucous  membrane  is  intensely 
inflamed,  and  a  diphtheritic  exudate  is  present  in  patches  at 
certain  parts.  Peyers  patches  and  the  solitary  glands  are 
swollen  and  congested.  In  the  large  intestine,  particularly  in 
the  caecum,  one  finds  the  mucous  membrane  swollen  and 
congested.  In  the  rectum  the  mucous  membrane  is  intensely 
red,  and  the  redness  is  broken  by  lines  of  greyish  exudate 
(zebra  markings).  The  liver  is  swollen  and  cloudy;  its  gall- 
bladder is  distended.  The  spleen  is  not  enlarged.  The  kidneys 
may  be  normal  or  they  may  be  congested. 

The  glands  are  often  hsemorrhagic.  The  serous  mem- 
branes are  ecchymosed.  The  blood  in  the  veins  is  of  a  purple 
colour,  and  the  microscope  shows  the  leucocytes  to  be  increased 
in  number,  while  the  red  cells  are  distorted— poikilocytosis. 
The  respiratory  membrane  may  also  show  congestion  and 
ecchymoses.  The  lungs  are  often  congested  and  emphyse- 
matous.  The  above  lesions  are  not  all  constant.  According 
to  Verney,  the  most  constant  lesions  are  inflammation  of  the 
nasal  cavities  and  abomasum,  ecchymoses  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  caecum,  and  zebra  markings  on  the 
rectum. 

Inspection.— The  flesh  in  the  advanced  stages  presents  a 
magenta  hue ;  it  may  be  of  a  mahogany  colour,  or  very  dark 
red.  It  gives  off  a  special  odour.  In  the  earlier  stages  it  is 
not  much  altered,  but  notwithstanding  this  the  majority  of 
experts  are  unanimous  in  condemning  such  flesh  as  an  article 
of  human  food ;  and  here,  as  in  the  case  of  rabies  and 
anthrax,  the  Legislature  has  decreed  its  absolute  destruction. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  163 

MALIGNANT  CATARRH  OF  THE  OX 
MALIGNANT  CATARRHAL  FEVER 

This  is  a  disease  characterised  by  septic  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  eyes,  the  anterior  parts  of  the 
respiratory  passages,  the  mouth,  and  the  bowel.  In.  severe  cases, 
symptoms  of  intoxication  are  also  well  marked.  The  disease  is 
of  bacterial  origin,  but  it  is  usually  sporadic  in  character,  and 
has  no  great  tendency  to  spread  from  animal  to  animal.  Some- 
times, however,  it  assumes  enzootic  characters  among  animals 
subjected  to  bad  hygienic  surroundings.  Thus  it  is  seen  to 
affect  a  large  number  of  beasts  which  have  come  a  sea  voyage 
and  been  battened  down  between  decks. 

Animals  affected.— The  disease  is  said  to  be  peculiar  to  the 
ox,  but  sheep  certainly  suffer,  though  less  frequently,  from  a 
very  similar  affection,  which  has  not  as  yet  been  the  subject 
of  special  investigation. 

The  microbe.— According  to  Leclainche,  the  disease  of  the 
ox  is  due  to  a  microbe  of  the  Bacillus  coli  type.  The  B.  coli 
is  an  oval  rod  rounded  at  its  extremities,  and  measuring 
from  2  to  3  /A  x  1.  It  stains  by  the  methyl-blue  preparations, 
but  does  not  take  Gram.  The  coli  is  a  harmless  inhabitant 
of  the  intestines  of  many  animals,  but  under  certain  circum- 
stances it  is  believed  to  acquire  pathogenic  characters.  It  is 
but  right  to  say,  however,  that  the  name  B.  coli  is  often 
applied  simply  to  designate  the  type  of  organism,  just  as  one 
speaks  of  the  fowl  cholera  type.  The  original  catarrhal 
symptoms  of  the  disease  become  complicated  at  a  later  stage, 
owing  to  invasion  of  the  tissues  by  other  microbes,  such  as 
those  of  suppuration. 

Lesions.— In  mild  cases,  and  in  the  early  stages,  one  finds 
congestion  of  the  Schneiderian  membrane,  a  croupous  exudate 
on  its  surface,  and  a  discharge  around  the  nostrils.  The  con- 
junctiva is  also  red  and  swollen.  The  membranes  of  the  mouth, 
the  larynx,  pharynx,  and  bowel  are  congested.  In  advanced  cases, 


1 64  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

the  membranes  of  the  nasal  cavities,  the  sinuses,  and  the  larynx, 
are  ulcerated  and  suppurating.  The  discharge  exhales  an 
abominable  odour.  The  deeper  parts  of  the  respiratory  passage 
seldom  show  alterations,  but  the  lungs  may  be  the  seat  of 
emphysema.  The  alterations  in  connection  with  the  eyes  are 
marked;  the  organs  may  show  signs  of  keratitis,  iritis,  and 
haemorrhage  into  the  anterior  chamber.  The  buccal  mem- 
brane on  the  lips,  the  gums,  and  base  of  the  tongue  shows  small 
superficial  erosions.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomachs 
and  bowel  is  inflamed  and  ecchymosed. 

Peyer's  patches  are  often  markedly  affected.  The  contents 
of  the  tube  are  tinged  with  blood.  The  glands  are  swollen 
and  congested.  The  kidneys  are  also  congested,  and  the  urine 
contained  in  the  bladder  may  be  blood  tinged.  A  pustular 
eruption  on  the  skin  has  also  been  noticed.  The  other  alterations 
are  those  of  a  septicaemic  type  of  disease— ecchymoses  on  the 
serous  membranes  and  small  haemorrhages  into  the  muscles. 

Inspection.  —No  bad  effects  are  known  to  have  followed  in 
human  beings  from  ingesting  the  fresh  flesh  of  animals  affected 
with  this  disease.  If  the  animals  have  been  killed  in  the  early 
stages,  their  flesh  is  not  much  altered,  and  it  may  be  passed. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  such  flesh  is  liable 
to  putrefy  quickly. 

In  advanced  cases  the  flesh  is  fevered,  and  it  shows  small 
intramuscular  haemorrhages.  In  such  cases  it  is  repulsive,  and 
should  be  considered  unmarketable. 


MALIGNANT  CATARRH  OF  THE  SHEEP 

In  sheep,  especially  hill  sheep,  a  disease  characterised  by 
somewhat  similar  lesions  to  those  seen  in  the  above  affection. 
is  met  with.  The  lesions,  however,  are  more  suppurative  in 
character,  and  the  animals  become  affected  although  they  are 
living  in  the.  open.  In  the  absence  of  information  regarding 
the  cause  of  this  affection,  one  would  hardly  be  justified  in 
saying  that  it  is  identical  with  the  malignant  catarrh  of  the 


PLATE  xiv 


Portion  of  Third  Stomach  of  Cow.    Malignant  Catarrh  from  exposure  to  foul  air 
in  the  hold  of  a  ship. 


Section  of  Fourth  Stomach  of  Cow.    Malignant  Catarrh. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  165 

ox.  It  looks  as  if  an  ordinary  catarrh  of  the  pituitary  membrane 
had  become  converted  into  a  suppurative  one  by  the  access  of 
pyogenic  germs. 

The  membrane  in  bad  cases  is  ulcerated.  Small  abscesses 
are  found  on  the  face  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  nostrils,  and 
sometimes  on  the  bare  parts  of  the  body  (auto-inoculation).  The 
animals  lose  condition,  and  in  bad  cases  are  much  emaciated. 

Inspection.  —Unless  the  carcases  are  much  emaciated,  they 
may  be  passed  with  safety  after  the  affected  parts  have  been 
removed. 

ANTHRAX 

SPLENIC  FEVER  ;  SPLENIC  APOPLEXY  ;  CUMBERLAND  DISEASE 
(Australia) ;  "  LOODIANAH  "  DISEASE  (India) ;  MALIGNANT 
PUSTULE  AND  WOOLSORTER'S  DISEASE  IN  MAN 

Anthrax  is  a  disease  caused  by  the  anthrax  bacillus. 

Animals  affected.  —  Human  beings  are  susceptible  to  an- 
thrax, and  they  usually  contract  it  by  handling  animals  or 
their  products. 

Oxen  and  sheep  are  the  domesticated  animals  most  fre- 
quently attacked  by  anthrax.  The  pig  and  horse  contract 
the  disease  less  frequently.  The  rabbit  is  also  susceptible,  but 
the  fowl  is  refractory  to  inoculation,  except  under  circumstances 
only  realised  in  experiment. 

The  microbe.  -When  examined  in  preparations  made  from 
the  organs  or  blood  while  they  are  fresh,  the  bacillus  appears 
in  the  form  of  stiff  motionless  rods,  measuring  from  6  to  10  p 
They  can  be  seen  in  unstained  preparations.  When  stained 
by  methyl-blue,  one  sees  a  coloured  central  rod  of  protoplasm 
bounded  by  a  clear  area,  which  only  takes  up  the  stain  at  its 
outer  margin.  Unless  a  very  high  magnification  be  used,  the 
ends  of  the  rod  appear  to  be  square  cut ;  but  in  reality  they 
are  concave.  The  bacillus  does  not  sporulate  in  the  body,  but 
if  the  preparation  be  made  from  the  tissues  some  time  after 
death,  unbranched  filaments  of  several  elements  mav  be  seen. 


1 66  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

The  bacillus  stains  well  by  most  of  the  aniline  dye  prepara- 
tions and  by  Gram's  method.  When  gentian- violet  is  used, 
however,  the  membrane  is  not  differentiated  from  the  rod 
protoplasm,  and  the  bacillus  looks  thicker.  The  bacteria  of 
putrefaction  which  invade  the  tissues  from  the  bowel  several 
hours  after  death  have  often  been  mistaken  for  those  of  anthrax 
(see  Inspection). 

Lesions  and  infection.— Animals  may  be  infected  through 
wounds,  or  by  way  of  the  alimentary  and  respiratory  tracts. 
The  path  of  infection,  however,  is  not  of  great  interest  to 


\ 
\ 


IS 


it 


FIG.  24. — Anthrax  bacilli  from  blood  (Leitz,  oil  immersion.     TV,). 

the  Meat  Inspector,  for  no  matter  how  the  microbe  has 
gained  a  footing,  it  finds  its  way  into  the  blood  stream  in 
a  comparatively  short  time. 

Animals  may  arrive  in  the  abattoir  sick  of  anthrax ;  they 
may  have  died  on  the  way,  or  their  carcases  may  come  in  dressed 
from  other  places.  This  is  one  of  the  dangers  of  the  foreign 
meat  trade.  As  might  be  expected,  the  lesions  present  will 
be  somewhat  different  in  each  case. 

The  lesions  found  in  connection  with  anthrax  are  of  the 
hsemorrhagic  septicaemia  type.  They  are  not  lesions  in  the 
sense  that  tubercles  are,  for  the  anthrax  bacillus  acts  mainly 
by  toxins,  which  produce  a  deadly  effect  in  a  comparatively 
short  time.  The  local  reaction  of  the  tissues  and  cells  is 
almost  absent.  The  bacteria,  however,  plug  many  of  the 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  167 

capillaries,  and  lead  to  congestion  of  the  organs  and  haemor- 
rhages into  their  tissues. 

If  the  animal  has  been  brought  in  dead,  there  is  often  a 
bloody  discharge  from  the  anus  and  nostrils.  Under  the  skin 
one  sometimes  finds  an  oedematous  swelling,  which  is  due  to 
infiltration  of  the  tissues  by  a  yellowish  or  blood-tinged  fluid. 
The  latter  is  not  common  in  cattle,  but  in  affected  horses  and 
pigs  it  is  the  rule  to  find  oedema  in  the  region  of  the  throat. 
Under  the  skin  one  finds  small  haemorrhages. 

The  flesh  is  paler  than  normal,  except  where  haemorrhage 
has  taken  place ;  some  time  after  death  it  has  a  salmon  colour. 
The  embedded  glands  are  haemorrhagic.  The  internal  organs 
and  glands  are  all  congested,  and  show  numerous  haemorrhages. 
The  latter  are  well  seen  on  the  omentum.  The  serous  cavities 
sometimes  contain  a  reddish  fluid,  and  their  membranes  are 
ecchymosed.  The  blood  is  dark  and  tarry-looking. 

The  spleen  is  usually  much  enlarged;  it  may  even  be  ruptured. 
The  pulp  is  more  fluid  than  normal,  and  has  a  tar-like 
appearance.  Enlargement  of  the  spleen  in  cases  of  sudden 
death  is  considered  almost  diagnostic  of  anthrax.  Under  all 
.circumstances,  where  they  are  no  other  lesions  to  account  for 
it,  the  enlargement  should  be  looked  on  with  great  suspicion. 
In  exceptional  cases,  however,  the  spleen  is  normal  in  size. 
When  the  animal  has  come  in  sick  and  been  bled  the  con- 
gestion is  not  so  well  marked,  and  in  the  case  of  a  carcase 
sent  in  dressed  many  of  the  important  indications  have  been 
removed. 

Inspection.— l$o  part  of  an  animal  that  has  died  or  been 
killed  during  an  attack  of  anthrax  should  be  allowed  into  the 
market.  All  parts  of  the  animal  ought  to  be  destroyed,  and 
the  greatest  precautions  should  be  exercised  by  those  whose 
duty  it  is  to  handle  them.  When  dealing  with  a  fresh  case, 
there  will  seldom  be  any  difficulty  about  arriving  at  a  correct 
diagnosis.  If  the  spleen  is  enlarged,  a  cover-glass  preparation 
of  the  pulp  will  show  hundreds  of  bacilli.  They  are  fewer  in 
cases  in  which  the  spleen  is  normal,  but  so  far  as  the  Editor's 


1 68  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

experience  goes,  a  few  can  always  be  found.  In  cases  which 
have  been  dead  some  time  before  the  inspector  makes  his  exam- 
ination, especially  if  the  season  be  hot,  the  anthrax  organism 
is  mixed  with  others.  Some  of  the  latter  resemble  it  sufficiently 
to  deceive  the  inexperienced  into  mistaking  an  ordinary  case  of 
post-mortem  putrefaction  for  anthrax.  The  bacilli  found  in 
the  former  condition,  however,  are  usually  larger  and  thicker, 
and  their  ends  are  rounded  or  pointed. 

These  putrefactive  germs  crowd  out  the  anthrax  rods,  so 
that  a  time  arrives  when  it  is  impossible  to  say  if  there  are  any 
present.  In  such  cases  it  is  advisable  to  examine  blood  from 
capillaries  equally  far  removed  from  the  two  sources  of  foreign 
microbes,  viz.  the  external  parts  and  the  intestines.  The 
Editor's  experience  has  been  that  a  small  artery  may  contain 
no  anthrax  bacilli,  although  the  case  is  one  of  anthrax.  The 
kidney,  owing  to  its  vascular  arrangement,  and  the  bone- 
marrow  are  good  organs  to  examine ;  one  may  even  resort  to 
sections  of  the  former. 

When  dealing  with  a  dressed  carcase,  the  difficulties  are 
greater.  The  suspicions  of  the  inspector  will  be  aroused  by 
the  appearance  of  the  flesh,  and  probably  by  the  ecchymosed 
condition  of  the  pleurae  and  peritoneum,  if  they  have  not  been 
stripped  off.  He  should  then  cut  into  the  muscles  to  look  for 
haemorrhages,  and  he  should  examine  the  blood.  The  Editor 
is  of  opinion  that  carcases  in  dispute  should  be  detained  in  cold 
storage  until  experimental  inoculation  has  decided  the  case. 

The  Anthrax  Order  of  1895,  sec.  7,  requires  that  the  carcase 
of  an  animal  which  at  the  time  of  its  death  was  affected  with 
or  suspected  of  anthrax  shall  be  destroyed.  "  Suspected  "  refers 
to  animals  that  have  died. 

MALIGNANT    (EDEMA 

TRAUMATIC  GANGRENE 

This  is  an  inoculable  disease  caused  by  the  bacillus  of 
malignant  oedema  (Koch),  the  Vibrion  septique  (Pasteur).  It 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES 


169 


is  characterised   by  intoxication,  and  by  gangrene  of  certain 
parts. 

Animals  affected.— Malignant  oedema  is  very  rarely  seen 
in  animals.  It  is  said  to  be  most  frequently  met  with  in  the 
horse.  Cases  have  also  been  reported  in  the  sheep,  ox,  and  pig. 
These  animals  certainly  suffer  sometimes  from  diseases  similar  in 
character  to  malignant  oedema,  but  convincing  evidence  is  still 


FIG.  25. — Bacillus  of  malignant  cedenia  from 
subcutaneous  fluid,      x  1000. 


wanting,  that  these  are  caused  by  the  vibrio.  Animals,  with 
the  exception  of  the  cow,  can  all  be  experimentally  inoculated. 
The  cow  however,  is  said  to  contract  the  disease  naturally. 

The  microbe.— The  microbe  is  found  in  the  oedematous 
fluids  under  the  skin  and  in  the  cavities.  It  seems  only  to 
invade  the  blood  in  numbers  as  death  approaches;  it  is  an 
anaerobe.  In  preparations  made  from  the  fluids  of  cavities  it 
presents  itself  in  the  form  of  long  threads  and  of  rods  rounded 


1 70  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

at  the  ends.  The  rods  measure  4  to  5  yu,  x  1.  They  are  motile, 
and  the  threads  can  be  seen  to  cross  the  field  with  a  twisting 
motion.  When  the  fluid  from  the  tumours  is  examined  some 
threads  are  found,  but  the  rods  are  more  numerous.  Many  of 
them  are  distended  by  clear  spores,  which  give  them  a  spindle 
or  knob-like  appearance. 

This  microbe  might  be  confounded  with  the  anthrax  bacillus, 
or  even  with  the  black  quarter  microbe.  The  anthrax  bacilli, 
however,  are  generally  abundant  in  the  blood,  and  they  are 
square  at  the  ends.  They  are  not  motile,  nor  do  the  segments 
of  the  threads  ever  attain  the  length  of  some  of  those 
seen  in  the  malignant  oedema  filament.  The  black  quarter 
bacillus  does  not  form  long  threads,  nor  is  it  so  thick  as 
the  other. 

Lesions.  —  The  lesions  consist  of  superficial  oedematous 
swellings  which  are  soon  followed  by  gangrene  and  emphy- 
sema of  the  part.  The  underlying  muscles  are  not  so  dark 
as  in  the  case  of  black  quarter,  and  if  an  odour  is  given  off, 
it  is  putrefactive. 

The  internal  lesions  are  not  important.  The  membranes 
are  ecchymosed,  and  the  spleen  may  be  slightly  enlarged,  but 
not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  anthrax. 

In  the  cow  the  lesions  are  said  to  be  those  of  septic 
metritis  with  emphysema  and  gangrene  of  the  pelvic  tissues ; 
but  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  all  such  cases  are  due  to 
the  vibrio. 

Inspection.  —  The  bacillus  soon  invades  the  tissues  after 
death.  The  attempts  to  infect  animals  by  ingestion  have  given 
negative  results ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  bacillus  exists 
in  the  intestines  of  healthy  animals.  Nevertheless,  infection  is 
theoretically  possible  if  a  wound  exists  in  the  anterior  part  of 
the  alimentary  tract.  The  carcase  is  generally  unmarketable 
011  account  of  the  fevered  condition  of  the  flesh,  which  soon 
putrefies. 

Total  seizure  is  justified  for  the  above  reasons. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  171 


BLACK  QUARTER 

BLACK  LEG  ;  STRIKING  ;  BLACK  SPAULD  (Scotland) ;  MURRAIN  ; 

QUARTER  ILL 

Black  Quarter  is  an  inoculable  disease  due  to  the  entrance 
into  the  tissues  of  the  black  quarter  bacillus—  Bacterium 
chauvcei. 

The  disease  is  characterised  by  intoxication  and  by  the 
appearance  of  emphysematous  tumours  in  certain  muscles  and 
under  the  skin. 

Animals  affected.  —  The  disease  is  seen  mostly  in  young 
oxen  between  the  ages  of  live  months  and  four  years,  but 
younger  and  older  animals  are  not  absolutely  immune.  Sheep 
and  goats  also  contract  the  disease  readily  enough.  One  or 
two  cases  have  been  reported  in  the  pig  and  horse.  Man  and 
the  fowl  are  immune. 

The  microbe.— The  bacillus  can  only  be  demonstrated  by 
the  microscope  in  preparations  made  from  the  affected  muscles 
and  the  oedematous  fluids.  In  the  freshest  state  it  is  in  the 
form  of  rods  measuring  from  5  to  8  /A,  rounded  at  the  ends,  and 
staining  equally  throughout.  In  unstained  preparations  it  is 
motile,  if  protected  from  the  air. 

Some  of  the  rods  occur  singly,  others  are  joined  end  to  end 
in  twos  and  threes.  This  is  the  form  usually  found  in  the  fresh 
fluid  from  cavities.  In  preparations  made  from  the  muscles 
the  form  of  the  bacilli  varies.  Some  of  them  are  distended 
by  a  clear  unstained  spore  in  the  centre  or  at  the  extremity ; 
others,  without  being  swollen,  stain  unequally.  In  this  way 
the  rod  may  become  spindle  or  racquet-shaped. 

It  stains  by  Kiihne's  or  L6 filer's  method.  It  also  stains 
by  that  of  Gram. 

Lesions.— The  principal  lesions  are  local  ones.  They  are 
found  in  the  region  of  the  fore  and  hind  quarters.  The  bacilli 
come  to  rest  in  the  intermuscular  tissues,  where  they  grow 
and  set  free  gases  which  distend  the  skin  and  dissect  apart 


1 7  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

the  muscle  fibres.  On  cutting  into  the  swelling,  gas  escapes. 
The  subcutaneous  and  intermuscular  tissues  are  infiltrated 
by  a  bloody  serosity.  The  muscles  of  the  part  are  dark  red 
in  colour,  and  their  fibres  look  stringy.  They  give  off  a  rancid 
odour  (butyric  acid),  which  becomes  very  marked  when  the 
tissue  is  heated.  In  the  sheep  the  local  tumour  may  be  almost 
imperceptible.  Histologically  examined,  many  of  the  muscle 
fibres  are  hyaline  and  broken  across.  The  glands  of  the 
part  are  often  haemorrhagic.  The  cavities  sometimes  contain 


FIG.  26. — Black-quarter  bacillus  from  muscle  of  ox 
(Zeiss,  oil  immersion.     T\). — M'FADYEAN. 

more  fluid  than  in  health.  Some  of  the  internal  organs 
are  congested,  and  the  muscular  ones  may  show  the  usual 
lesion.  It  may  be  found  in  the  heart,  for  example. 

Inspection.— The  disease  is  not  communicable  to  man,  and 
the  flesh  has  been  often  consumed  by  human  beings  without  ill 
results.  Nevertheless,  total  seizure  in  an  abattoir  is  justifiable, 
because  the  flesh  has  often  a  rancid  odour,  and  putrefaction 
begins  in  a  very  short  time.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  one 
meets  with  cases  of  black  quarter  in  the  abattoirs;  but  the 
carcase  of  an  animal  killed  during  an  attack  may  be  sent  in 


BACTERTAL  DISEASES  173 

dressed.     It  may  then  be  necessary  to  decide  whether  the  lesion 
is  of  traumatic  origin,  as  may  be  stated  by  the  proprietor. 

One  will,  of  course,  look  for  bacilli  in  the  lesions.  A  piece 
of  the  suspected  muscle  should  be  heated  gently,  when  a  rancid 
odour  will  be  given  off  in  the  case  of  black  quarter.  Some  of 
the  putrefactive  microbes  are  rather  like  the  black  quarter 
bacillus,  and  might  at  first  sight  be  mistaken  for  it.  The  former, 
however,  are  larger,  and  they  are  not  so  deeply  situated  in  the 
muscles,  unless  putrefaction  is  well  advanced.  In  the  latter 
case,  of  course,  the  question  is  settled  so  far  as  meat  inspection 
is  concerned.  The  diseased  muscle  can  be  examined  micro- 
scopically after  teasing  on  a  slide. 


RED  BRAXY 

In  Scotland  this  name  is  applied  very  loosely  to  more  than 
one  disease  of  the  sheep.  One  speaks  particularly  of  water  braxy, 
and  red  or  turnip  braxy,  but  the  term  braxy  mutton,  as  used 
by  the  peasants,  generally  means  simply  the  flesh  of  sheep 
which  have  not  died  by  the  hand  of  man.  Water  braxy  is 
simply  an  oedematous  condition,  which  may  have  arisen  from 
more  than  one  cause,  although  it  is  generally  considered  to  be 
a  dietetic  disease.  Bed  braxy  is  a  specific  disease,  and  seems 
to  be  identical  with  bradsot,  or  brasot,  which  is  very  prevalent 
in  Iceland  and  in  some  parts  of  Norway.  In  its  character 
this  disease  very  much  resembles  black  quarter,  and  the  two 
have  often  been  confounded.  It  is  advisable  that  veterinarians 
should  reserve  the  term  braxy  for  the  specific  disease. 

The  disease  is  prevalent  in  the  north  of  Scotland  and  in 
some  parts  of  England  — Cumberland.  According  to  the 
writings  of  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century,  it  had  then  a 
much  wider  distribution  in  Scotland  than  it  has  to-day.  The 
deaths  amounted  to  as  many  as  35  per  cent,  of  the  flock  in  some 
places.  The  disease  was  well  known  in  various  parts  of  the 
Lowlands ;  but  it  has  to  a  large  extent  disappeared  as  the 


1 74  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

land  became  improved.  Braxy  is  almost  identical  to  black 
quarter  in  its  clinical,  bacteriological,  and  morbid  anatomical 
characters. 

Animals  affected.— 1h&  disease  is  met  with  most  commonly 
in  young  sheep  towards  the  back-end  of  the  year.  Animals 
above  the  age  of  three  years  are  seldom  attacked.  The  calf 
and  pig  are  not  refractory  to  experimental  inoculation,  but 
one  does  not  hear  of  them  being  infected  naturally.  In  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture  (No.  50,  1838),  Mr.  J. 
Carmichael,  who  had  evidently  great  experience  of  braxy, 
describes  a  case  in  a  mountain  deer.  The  disease  can  be 
experimentally  inoculated  to  fowls  and  pigeons,  which  are 
absolutely  immune  to  black  quarter.  The  effect  of  the  virus 
on  these  birds  constitutes  one  of  the  chief  differences  between 
the  two  diseases. 

The  microbe.— Nielsen,  and  more  recently  Jensen,  describe 
the  microbe  of  bradsot  as  a  sporulating  bacillus,  measuring 
2  to  6  fi  x  1,  and  resembling  in  appearance  the  bacillus  of  black 
quarter.  In  fact  the  only  difference  seems  to  be  in  its  patho- 
genic effect  on  animals.  It  stains  in  the  same  way  as  the  latter 
microbe.  Preparations  are  best  made  from  the  fluid  of  the 
cavities  and  the  oedema  in  the  wall  of  the  fourth  stomach. 

Lesions.—  They  are  very  like  those  of  black  quarter.  The 
subcutaneous  and  muscular  tissues  are  infiltrated  by  a  sanguin- 
eous oedema ;  gas  is  also  present.  The  serous  cavities  contain 
a  reddish  fluid.  The  walls  of  the  stomachs,  particularly  the 
fourth,  and  the  intestines  are  infiltrated  by  a  sanguineous 
fluid.  The  flesh  exhales  a  special  odour. 

Inspection.  — On  account  of  the  odour  and  discoloration  of 
the  tissues  the  flesh  is  unmarketable,  but  it  is  not  harmful  to 
human  beings,  unless  putrefaction  has  set  in.  This  occurs 
very  rapidly.  In  infected  districts  large  quantities  of  braxy 
mutton  are  consumed  by  the  peasant  population  after  salting 
or  smoking  ;  but,  inasmuch  as  the  curer  is  unable  to  distinguish 
between  anthrax  and  the  former  disease,  this  practice  is  not 
devoid  of  danger. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  175 

An  interesting  note  in  a  paper  by  Mr.  Cowan  (Highland 
and  Agricultural  Soc.  Reports,  1861)  is  as  follows:— "In 
some  places  of  Argyllshire,  large  quantities  of  braxy  mutton 
are  salted,  dried  as  hams,  and  sold  into  the  towns,  where  by 
many  it  is  considered  a  delicacy.  From  the  quantities  of  it 
consumed  in  particular  localities,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  a 
cause  of  bowel  disorders,  impurity  of  the  blood,  and  skin  dis- 
eases." In  a  footnote  the  editor  of  the  journal  remarks  that  the 
price  obtained  for  the  flesh,  which  was  in  much  request,  made 
farmers  less  anxious  to  get  rid  of  the  disease  from  their  farms. 

With  regard  to  the  flesh  being  a  cause  of  skin  disease,  it 
is  interesting  to  remember  that  "  itch  "  (scabies),  the  classic 
reproach  to  the  Highlands,  was  said  to  be  of  dietetic  origin. 
A  continued  diet  composed  largely  of  salted  meat  is  not  con- 
ducive to  health,  especially  if  the  flesh  has  begun  to  putrefy 
before  being  put  into  the  pickle. 


TETANUS 
LOCK-JAW 

An  inoculable  disease,  caused  by  the  bacillus  of  tetanus,  and 
characterised  by  tonic  spasms  of  the  muscles. 

Animals  affected.—  Of  the  domesticated  animals  the  horse 
is  the  most  susceptible  to  tetanus.  The  disease  is  rare  in 
the  ox,  but  it  may  be  met  with  in  cows  after  parturition. 
Occasionally  it  is  met  with  in  calves  (umbilical  tetanus). 
Sheep  and  goats  are  more  frequently  attacked  than  oxen.  A 
considerable  number  of  cases  appear  in  certain  districts  in 
newly  born  lambs  and  in  those  that  have  been  castrated.  The 
pig  is  susceptible,  but  does  not  often  contract  the  disease. 
Fowls  are  refractory.  Man  is  susceptible. 

The  microbe.— The  bacillus  of  tetanus  is  found  at  the  seat  of 
inoculation,  which  is  generally  a  suppurating  wound.  After 
death,  a  few  bacilli  invade  the  blood  (Sanchez  Toledo).  The  rod 
measures  about  6  p.  It  is  rounded  at  the  ends,  and  when  the 


i76 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


microbe  is  speculating  one  extremity  shows  a  knob,  or  maybe 
a  clear  space  (drumstick  bacillus).  The  rods  occur  singly  or 
in  twos  and  threes  joined  end  to  end.  In  preparations  made 
from  the  wound  other  microbes  are  present. 

Lesions.— The  bacillus  acts  solely  by  its  toxins;  the  lesions 
found  are  not  due  directly  to  it.  Thus  there  may  be 
pneumonia  when  foreign  bodies  have  passed  down  the  trachea 
during  a  spasm  of  the  glottis ;  in  the  muscles  there  may  be 


FIG.  27. — Tetanus  bacillus  (sporulating) 
(Reichert,  oil  immersion.     ^). 

signs  of  small  haemorrhages  having  occurred.  A  histological 
examination  of  the  latter  organs  often  reveals  hyaline 
degeneration  of  some  of  the  fibres. 

Inspection.— Tetanus  is  not  at  all  likely  to  be  transmitted 
to  man  by  ingestion.  Animals  do  not  develop  tetanus  even 
when  virulent  material  is  ingested ;  indeed,  the  bacillus  exists 
in  the  intestines  of  many  healthy  animals.  The  comparatively 
small  chance  of  recovery  may  induce  the  owner  of  an  animal 
to  slaughter  it  at  the  outset  of  the  attack.  The  flesh  of  such 
animals,  if  it  set  properly,  may  be  passed  as  harmless  and 


marketable  when  the  wounded  tissue  has  been  removed.  In 
the  later  stages,  however,  the  flesh  does  not  set,  and  the 
muscles  are  altered  in  the  manner  described  above.  Such 
carcases  are  not  dangerous,  but  they  are  unmarketable. 

RABIES 

Babies  is  a  disease  communicated  to  animals  by  the  inocula- 
tion of  an  undetermined  virus.  The  disease  is  characterised 
by  maniacal  symptoms,  and  in  the  later  stages  by  paralysis. 

Animals  affected.— The  dog  most  frequently  suffers  from 
rabies,  but  he  may  inoculate  other  animals  by  biting  them. 
These  in  turn  may  inoculate  each  other,  but  it  is  mainly  by  the 
dog  that  the  disease  is  spread.  All  animals  are  susceptible, 
but  the  fowl  seldom  becomes  rabid  after  being  bitten.  In  man 
the  disease  is  known  as  hydrophobia. 

Lesions.— There  are  no  lesions  that  can  be  said  to  be 
pathognomoiiic  of  rabies.  Indeed,  the  post-mortem  appearances 
usually  leave  one  in  doubt,  unless  the  history  of  the  animal  is 
known.  The  symptoms  of  rabies  may  develop  in  an  animal 
during  its  sojourn  in  the  pens  of  the  abattoir ;  but  such  cases 
will  be  comparatively  easy  to  deal  with  if  the  inspector  be  a 
veterinary  surgeon,  as  he  should  be. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  happen  that  the  animals  have 
been  sent  in  for  slaughter  on  account  of  having  been  bitten  by 
a  mad  dog.  The  owner  may  have  advised  the  authorities,  or 
he  may  not ;  but  if  a  number  of  bitten  animals  come  in  for 
slaughter,  it  will  be  as  well  to  get  their  history.  The  fact  of 
the  animals  not  being  fat  should  arouse  suspicion. 

If  the  animals  have  come  in  soon  after  the  accident,  the 
wounds  will  be  apparent.  If  the  symptoms  have  developed 
before  death,  there  will  often  be  self-inflicted  wounds  present.  In 
sheep  and  cattle  the  latter  are  generally  found  about  the  head. 

In  the  carnivora  the  wounds  are  found  on  the  tongue 
and  in  the  mouth.  The  pharynx  may  be  congested.  A  like 
condition  is  found  in  the  salivary  glands.  The  stomach  may 
12 


1 7  8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

contain  foreign  material  of  all  descriptions,  or  only  a  quantity 
of  brownish-coloured  blood-tinged  mucus.  The  alimentary 
mucous  membrane  is  congested  and  ecchymosed  at  places. 
The  serous  membranes  also  show  ecchymoses.  The  respiratory 
membrane  may  be  similarly  congested  and  ecchymosed.  The 
nerve  centres  and  the  meninges  are  also  congested. 

In  ruminants  the  appearances  are  practically  the  same, 
except  that  the  true  stomach  is  usually  empty,  and  wounds  in 
the  mouth  are  less  frequent.  According  to  Nocard  and  Eoux, 
the  urine  present  in  the  bladders  of  animals  dead  of  rabies  con- 
tains in  about  30  per  cent,  of  cases  a  large  amount  of  sugar. 
The  histological  lesions  are  as  little  conclusive  as  the  macro- 
scopical  ones. 

Inspection.— Rabies  is  not  a  disease  likely  to  be  contracted 
by  ingestion,  even  if  the  material  swallowed  be  virulent ;  still,  a 
theoretical  danger  exists,  despite  the  absence  of  confirmatory 
evidence.  The  greater  danger,  however,  is  to  the  man  who 
manipulates  the  carcase ;  and  he  should  be  warned  against  the 
chances  of  accidental  inoculation  if  a  post-mortem  has  to  be  made. 

The  parts  that  have  been  found  to  contain  the  virus  are 
the  brain,  the  cord,  the  salivary  and  lachrymal  glands.  Less 
frequently  the  nerves  are  virulent;  they  are  most  likely  to  be 
so  towards  the  centres ;  the  virus  seems  to  spread  both  to  and 
from  the  centres  along  the  nerves.  More  rarely  the  kidneys, 
the  suprarenal,  pancreatic,  and  mammary  glands  have  been 
found  virulent.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  nerve  centres 
and  the  saliva  have  been  found  virulent  two  or  three  days 
before  the  appearance  of  any  appreciable  symptom  (Nocard 
and  Eoux).  The  muscles  are  never  virulent  of  themselves, 
but  the  nerve  trunks  of  the  part  may  be. 

It  appears  from  the  above  considerations  that  total  seizure 
will  be  necessary  in  all  cases  when  the  symptoms  have  developed. 

When  dealing  with  the  carcases  of  animals  slaughtered  on 
account  of  having  been  recently  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  seize  the  head  and  the  parts  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  bites. 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  179 

FOWL  CHOLERA 

This  is  a  contagious  disease  of  birds,  usually  of  the  septi- 
caemia type,  and  caused  by  the  fowl  cholera  bacillus. 

Animals  affected.—  All  birds  are  susceptible,  but  barn-door 
fowls  suffer  most  frequently.  The  rabbit  is  also  very  susceptible. 
Birds  and  rabbits  are  most  often  attacked  by  the  disease  in  its 
acute  or  septicaemic  form.  The  less  susceptible  animals,  such  as 
horses  and  ruminants,  are  either  not  affected  by  experimental 
inoculation,  or  they  show  only  a  local  abscess.  They  never 
contract  the  disease  spontaneously.  Human  beings  are 
refractory. 

So  far  as  the  Editor  knows,  fowl  cholera  has  not  been  re- 
corded in  British  fowls.1  Klein,  however,  has  described  a  some- 
what similar  disease  in  fowls,  due  to  the  Bacillus  gallinarum. 
This  was  met  with  in  England  and  Ireland.  The  same  author- 
ity also  investigated  the  well-known  "grouse  disease,"  and 
stated  that  it  was  due  to  a  bacillus  of  the  fowl  cholera  type. 
M'Fadyean  has  described  an  epizootic  pneumo-pericarditis  in 
turkeys,  which  was  caused  by  a  similar  bacillus.  The  iwo 
latter,  howrever,  are  not  communicable  to  the  fowl.  The  Editor 
has  also  described  a  form  of  septicaemia  which  carried  off  a 
large  number  of  tuberculous  fowls.  The  latter  was  also  due 
to  a  bacillus  of  the  fowl  cholera  type. 

The  microbe.  —The  microbe  of  fowl  cholera  is  a  small,  oval 
bacillus,  measuring  1  //,  x  •  25.  When  coloured  preparations  of 
the  bacilli  are  looked  at  longitudinally,  the  poles  and  margins 
appear  deeply  stained,  and  they  enclose  a  clear,  uncoloured 
space  in  the  centre.  This  appearance,  however,  is  not  confined 
to  the  bacillus  of  fowl  cholera ;  it  constitutes  a  morphological 
type  to  which  several  microbes  belong.  When  the  microbes 
are  looked  at  perpendicularly  they  resemble  cocci.  The  bacillus 
can  be  stained  by  Lofner's  or  Kiihne's  blues.  Preparations  can 
be  obtained  from  the  blood,  the  oedematous  fluids,  and  all  the 

1  Since  writing  this,  Professor  M  Tadyean  has  informed  the  Editor  that  he 
has  frequently  met  with  the  disease. 


1 80  ME  A  T  INSPECTION 

organs.      The   microbes   are  also  present   in   the    discharges, 
though  not  in  a  state  of  purity. 

Lesions.—  In  most  cases  death  takes  place  in  from  twelve 
to  forty-eight  hours.  A  few,  however,  linger  on  for  a  week 
or  two,  then  die  emaciated. 

A  yellowish  foam  is  present  about  the  beak,  and  signs  of 
diarrhoea  are  seen  around  the  anus.  In  the  subcutaneous 
tissues  one  finds  small  haemorrhages.  The  muscles  are  very 
pale  in  chronic  cases.  The  internal  vessels  are  all  congested, 
and  so  are  many  of  the  organs. 

Blood.— The  blood  is  very  dark  in  colour. 

Lungs  and  pleurae.— The  lungs  are  congested;  the  pleura 
is  ecchymosed. 

Heart  and  pericardium. —The  pericardium  is  ecchymosed, 
and  the  cavity  contains  a  light  straw-coloured  fluid,  which 
soon  coagulates  when  the  sac  is  opened.  The  heart  muscle 
and  endocardium  show  ecchymoses. 

Liver.— The  liver  is  swollen,  and  in  some  cases  it  shows 
small  necrotic  areas  of  a  yellowish  colour. 

Spleen.— The  spleen  is  usually  much  swollen,  but  it  may 
be  normal. 

Intestines  and  peritoneum. —The  peritoneal  cavity  contains 
a  fibrinous  fluid. 

The  intestinal  mucous  membrane  is  congested  and  ecchy- 
mosed ;  in  some  parts  a  greyish  exudate  is  present.  The  tube 
contains  a  fluid  which  is  grey  and  blood-streaked. 

Inspection.  —It  is  unlikely  that  fowl  cholera  will  be  met 
with  by  the  Meat  Inspector ;  neither  is  he  likely  to  see  the 
diseases  described  by  Klein,  nor  that  of  turkeys  investigated 
by  M'Fadyean,  except  perhaps  in  the  poultry  markets.  The 
flesh  of  birds  dead  from  those  affections  is  unmarketable, 
for  it  is  often  flaccid,  and  shows  small  haemorrhages.  It  may 
happen,  however,  that  when  a  hen-run  or  cover  gets  infected, 
the  proprietor  may  decide  to  kill  off  for  sale  as  many  birds  as 
possible.  A  number  of  birds,  then,  that  have  been  killed  in 
the  early  stages  may  be  sent  into  the  market.  If  the  birds 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  181 

are  not  emaciated,  and  if  the  flesh  is  not  disfigured  by  haemor- 
rhages, there  is  110  reason  why  it  should  be  withdrawn  from 
consumption,  since  none  of  the  diseases  here  mentioned 
are  communicable  to  human  beings.  Birds  which  have  not 
been  shot  or  had  their  necks  drawn,  should  arouse  sus- 
picion ;  but,  of  course,  it  is  easy  enough  to  draw  the  neck 
after  death. 

A  bacteriological  examination  of  the  heart  blood  might 
give  the  inspector  a  clue  to  the  cause  of  the  lesions.  The  Editor 
would  point  out,  however,  that  in  his  experience  bacilli  of  the 
fowl  cholera  type,  which  may  in  no  way  be  connected  with  the 
animal's  death,  are  not  infrequently  present  in  the  heart  blood 
of  fowls.  They  have  probably  invaded  the  blood  from  the 
intestines  after  death,  for,  as  every  one  knows,  the  entrails  of 
the  slaughtered  fowls  are  not  immediately  removed. 


DIARRHCEA  IN  YOUNG  ANIMALS 
WHITE  SCOUR 

Diarrhoea  in  young  animals  is  brought  about  by  the  action 
of  the  several  species  of  bacteria  which  cause  lactic  acid,  acetic 
acid,  and  butyric  acid  fermentations. 

The  products  of  these  bacteria  irritate  the  gastro-intestinal 
mucous  membrane,  and  a  catarrhal  condition  is  set  up. 
According  to  Jensen,  diarrhoea  in  young  calves  at  the 
teat  is  due  to  a  bacillus  which  resembles  the  bacillus  coli 
(see  MALIGNANT  CATARRH).  The  latter  form  is  sometimes 
complicated  by  septicaemia ;  that  is  to  say,  the  bacteria  invade 
the  blood  stream. 

Animals  affected.— Diarrhoea  of  the  above  nature  may  be 
seen  in  all  young  animals,  but  it  is  principally  with  calves  and 
lambs  that  the  Meat  Inspector  is  concerned. 

Sometimes  the  calves'  carcases  are  sent  to  the  abattoir  after 
having  been  bled ;  it  would  hardly  be  worth  while  sending  in 
a  lamb's  carcase. 


1 8  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Lesions.—  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum  shows 
slight  congestion.  A  similar  condition  is  found  on  certain  parts 
of  the  bowel.  The  posterior  bowel  contains  a  sticky  white 
material,  which  has  a  sour  smell.  The  flesh  is  paler  even  than 
normal ;  it  is  flabby  and  usually  oedematous.  If  the  trouble 
has  existed  for  a  day  or  two  the  body  is  emaciated. 

Inspection.— Flesh  of  the  above  description  is  considered 
unmarketable  owing  to  its  watery  and  emaciated  condition. 
Nbcard  states  that  numerous  observations  show  that  veal  of 
this  description  may  be  the  cause  of  serious  gastro-intestiiial 
disturbance  in  human  beings.  He  explains  that  this  is  probably 
due  to  bacteria  contained  in  the  flesh.  Evidently  he  refers  to 
the  form  in  very  young  calves,  which  may  end  in  septicaemia. 
The  flesh  of  animals  so  young  as  that,  however,  may  cause 
intestinal  disorder,  even  if  the  animal  has  not  suffered  from 
diarrhoea. 

DERMATOMYCOSIS. 

This  term  is  applied  to  diseases  of  the  skin  caused  by  parasitic 
moulds. 

The  principal  forms  are  those  popularly  known  as  ringworm 
—  Tinea  tonsurans  and  Favus. 

TINEA  TONSUEANS 

This  form  of  the  disease  is  caused  by  the  Trycophyton 
tonsurans  (Malmsten).  It  is  frequently  seen  in  cattle,  but 
rarely  in  sheep  and  pigs.  Man  may  be  infected  from  animals 
by  contact. 

The  parasite.— The  parasite,  when  taken  from  the  lesions, 
consists  of  filaments  and  spores.  The  former  are  partitioned, 
and  show  occasional  branching  (Fig.  28).  They  measure  from 
4  to  6  fi  in  diameter,  and  some  of  them  break  up  into  chains 
of  spores  at  one  extremity.  The  spores  are  ovoid  bodies 
measuring  from  2  to  4  /u.  in  length.  They  are  arranged  in 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES 


183 


chains  or  masses,   and  are  generally  much  more  numerous 
than  the  filaments. 

Preparations  are  obtained 
from  scrapings  taken  off  the 
affected  patches,  and  from  the 
roots  of  diseased  hairs.  The 
material  should  be  first  cleared 
in  a  40  per  cent,  solution  of 
caustic  potash,  and  then  mounted 
in  glycerine.  No  staining  is 
necessary. 

It  is  by  no  means  certain 
that  all  cases  of  trycophyton 
ringworm  are  caused  by  the 
tonsurans,  for  some  of  the  para- 
sites show  distinct  differences  on 
artificial  culture  media.  This 
question,  however,  need  not  be 
discussed,  as  its  bearing  on  meat 
inspection  is  insignificant. 

Lesions.— In  cattle  the  lesions 
are  most  frequently  found  about 
the  head  and  neck ;  but  they 
may  appear  on  any  part  of  the 
body.  In  the  older  animals,  the 
upper  eyelid,  the  base  of  the  l|l 
horns,  and  the  neck  are  favourite  '*' 
seats.  In  calves  the  lesions  are 
often  found  around  the  mouth. 
Dry  crusts  of  a  greyish  colour 
appear  on  the  skin.  They  may 
reach  the  thickness  of  half  an  , 

FIG.  28.— Hair   of  horse,  showing 

inch,  and  the  hairs  are  destroyed.         the    trycophyton    parasite.— 

If  some  of  the  remaining  hairs         NEUMANN. 

be  pulled  out  from  the  affected 

area,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  some  cases  the  roots  are  surrounded 


1 84  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

by  a  greyish  sheath.  The  microscope  shows  the  latter  to  be 
made  up  of  spores. 

If  the  denser  crusts  be  pulled  off,  the  skin  is  found  to  be  red 
and  bleeding  underneath.  There  may  also  be  pus  present. 
The  skin  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  crusts  is  wrinkled. 
In  another  form  of  the  disease  the  lesions  start  about  the 
flanks,  croup,  and  sides  of  the  chest.  The  hair  is  at  first 
erect  in  small  patches.  Later,  it  falls  off,  leaving  a  bald 
patch  which  often  reaches  the  size  of  a  five-shilling  piece, 
and  is  limited  by  a  circular  zone  of  congestion. 

In  sheep  the  wool  is  matted  in  small  patches  on  the 
neck,  chest,  shoulders,  and  back,  and  greyish  crusts  appear 
on  the  skin. 

Inspection.— Sec  FAVUS. 

FAVUS 

The  Meat  Inspector  is  only  likely  to  meet  with  this 
form  of  ringworm  in  fowls.  It  has  several  times  been  met 
with  in  caged  rabbits  ;  but,  so  far  as  the  Editor  is  aware, 
no  outbreak  has  been  reported  in  a  warren. 

The  parasite.  — The  parasite  is  a  mould— the  Achorion 
schonleinii.  The  elements  of  the  fungus  are  very  like  those 
of  trycophyton;  so  much  so,  that  the  differential  diagnosis 
cannot  be  made  by  a  microscopic  examination  alone.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  filaments  are  much  more  numerous  than 
in  trycophyton,  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  threads  into 
chains  of  spores  is  more  frequently  observed.  Slight  differ- 
ences of  form  and  biological  character  observed  in  parasites 
from  favus  lesions  render  it  probable  that  all  are  not  due  to 
the  achorion. 

Lesions. —In  the  fowl  the  lesions  are  mostly  found  on  the 
comb  and  wattles,  but  they  may  also  appear  on  the  body. 
Greyish  circular  crusts  appear  on  the  skin.  They  vary  in 
size  from  a  pin-head  to  a  threepenny  piece,  and  consist  of 
felted  masses  of  filaments  (mycelia).  At  first  they  are  cupped 


BACTERIAL  DISEASES  185 

or  depressed  in  the  centre.  As  the  patches  become  confluent, 
however,  this  appearance  is  lost,  and  the  skin  is  covered  by 
irregular  crusts  of  a  greyish  colour.  When  the  neck  and  body 
are  invaded,  the  feathers  are  powdery,  and  many  of  them 
have  fallen  out.  A  mouldy,  mouse-like  odour  is  given  off. 
The  birds  are  frequently  emaciated. 

Inspection.  — It  is  by  contact  with  the  diseased  surfaces 
and  hairs  that  human  beings  contract  ringworm  from  animals. 
Many  cases  of  transmission,  both  of  trycophyton  and  favus, 
have  been  recorded.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  warn  those 
who  have  to  handle  the  carcases  of  the  danger  of  infection, 
and  it  is  advisable  that  all  affected  fowls  be  kept  out  of  the 
market. 

In  the  larger  animals,  however,  the  lesions  will  be  removed 
with  the  skin,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  seize  any  part  of 
the  carcase,  unless  the  deeper  structures  have  been  injured 
by  rubbing,  or  by  the  application  of  severe  irritants. 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PAKASITES 

PROTOZOA 

lljfjT 

SEVERAL  members  of  this  group  of  animal  parasites  are  found 
in  the  blood,  muscles,  and  internal  organs  of  animals  used  for 
food.  With  the  exception  of  the  coccidia,  we  cannot  regard 
them  as  parasites  transmissible  from  animals  to  human  beings 
through  the  medium  of  animal  flesh.  The  evidence  in  favour 
of  even  the  coccidia  being  so  transmitted  is  slight. 

TEXAS  FEVER 

This  is  a  parasitic  disease  which  is  well  known  in  the 
Southern  States  of  North  America.  In  Australia  it  is  known 
as  Tick  Fever.  It  is  also  met  with  in  Finland. 

AniTnals  affected.— The  disease  is  seen  in  cattle  ;  sheep  are 
immune.  This  affection  has  not  obtained  a  footing  on  cattle 
of  this  country,  but  it  is  sometimes  met  with  in  those  imported 
for  slaughter. 

The  parasite.— The  parasite,  which  has  been  classed  with 
the  Protozoa,  has  been  named  Pyrosoma  bigeminwn.  It  is 
found  free  in  the  blood  or  contained  in  the  red  corpuscles. 

The  parasites  usually  present  themselves  as  clear  bodies  of  a 
pear-shape.  They  measure  from  2  to  4  p  in  length,  by  1-5  to  2  ^ 
at  their  broadest  part.  Some  of  them  show  a  small  dark  point 
like  a  nucleus  in  the  swollen  end.  In  fresh  blood  (uncoagulated) 
preparations  the  free  parasites  show  amoeboid  movements  at 
the  body  temperature.  The  pear-shape  is  not  the  only  form ; 
some  are  spherical.  The  latter  are  especially  met  with  in 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     187 


aminals  affected  by  the  disease  in  its  chronic  form.  The  red 
cells  contain  one,  two,  or  more  parasites,  and  they  are  most 
abundantly  present  in  blood  from  the  kidneys,  spleen,  and 
liver.  Cover-glass  preparations  made  from  the  blood  can  be 
stained  by  eosin  and  methyl-blue,  or  by  methyl- violet. 

Lesions.—  Ticks  are  often  present  on  the  affected  animals ; 
it  is  through  the  agency  of  the  former  that  the  disease  is  believed 
to  be  spread.  In  the  acute  stages  the  animals  are  very  anaemic. 
The  red  blood  cells  may  have  fallen  greatly  below  the  normal 
(normal  in  ox=  6,000,000 
per  cubic  mm.).  Many  of 
the  corpuscles  contain  para- 
sites; others  are  distorted 
(poikilocytosis). 

Small  haemorrhages  are 
found  under  the  skin  and 
in  the  internal  organs.  The 
latter  are  engorged  with 
blood.  The  spleen  is  en- 
larged—maybe to  twice  its 
normal  size.  The  kidneys 
are  also  congested,  arid  their 
tubules  are  sometimes 
crammed  with  brownish 
granules  of  pigment  derived 
from  the  blood  (pigmentary 
infarction).  The  bladder  may  contain  reddish-coloured  urine. 
The  flesh  may  be  fevered. 

The  post-mortem  appearances  in  the  acute  form  of  the  disease 
resemble  those  of  anthrax,  but  the  absence  of  the  Bacillus 
anthracis  from  the  blood  and  congested  organs  suffices  to  differ- 
entiate Texas  fever  from  the  former. 

In  chronic  cases  the  animals  are  much  emaciated  and  very 
anaemic.  The  spleen  is  usually  more  or  less  enlarged,  but 
congestion  of  the  other  organs  is  not  usually  present.  The 
haemoglobinuria  symptoms  are  generally  absent. 


FIG.  29. — Eed  cells  of  ox  containing  the 
parasites  of  Texas  fever.— SMITH. 


1 88  ME  A  T  1NSPE  CTION 

The  flesh  is  paler  than  normal,  but  it  may  show  signs  of 
small  haemorrhages. 

Inspection.— Nothing  is  definitely  known  about  the  effect 
on  human  beings  of  the  flesh  of  animals  which  have  suffered 
from  Texas  fever.  One  may  reasonably  argue,  however,  that 
any  deleterious  action  wrould  have  been  traced,  did  it  exist ;  for 
in  some  parts  of  the  world  the  disease  is  very  common,  and 
the  flesh  of  affected  animals  must  frequently  have  been  eaten 
by  human  beings. 

The  carcases  of  the  affected  animals  are  often  unmarketable 
on  account  of  their  poor  condition  and  watery  appearance, 
or  the  presence  of  hsemorrhagic  discolorations  and  signs  of 
fever.  In  1894,  Texas  fever  was  discovered  in  cattle  imported 
into  Hamburg  for  slaughter.  Since  then,  all  European 
continental  countries  have  forbidden  the  importation  of 
American  oxen,  with  the  view  of  preventing  the  disease  from 
gaining  a  footing  amongst  their  herds. 

Several  diseases  which  are  analogous  to,  though  not  identical  with,  Texas 
fever,  have  been  described  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

In  India  we  have  Surra,  which  is  caused  by  a  blood  parasite  Trypanosoma 
evansi.  This  disease  mostly  attacks  horses,  but  it  is  also  met  with  in  goats, 
and  occasionally,  in  a  milder  form,  it  affects  cattle. 

In  Central  Africa  the  imported  horses  and  cattle  are  attacked  by  Nagana- 
Tse-tse  Fly  disease,  which  is  due  to  a  blood  parasite  very  like  that  of  Surra. 

Carceag  is  the  name  applied  to  a  disease  of  sheep  in  certain  parts  of 
Roumania.  According  to  Babes,  the  disease  is  caused  by  a  micrococcus  which 
invades  the  red  blood  cells,  and  it  is  the  same  disease  as  the  bacterial  hfemo- 
globinuria  observed  by  him  in  Roumanian  cattle.  Mr.  Macfarlane,  M.R.C.V.S., 
Malta,  consulted  the  Editor  about  a  disease  which  attacks  cattle  imported  into 
the  island.  In  a  week  or  a  fortnight  after  landing  they  sicken,  and  the 
termination  is  almost  always  fatal.  The  post-mortem  appearances  are :  great 
enlargement  of  the  lymph  glands  throughout  the  body,  enlargement  of  the 
spleen  and  liver,  and  staining  of  the  tissues  Avith  bile.  A  well-marked  symptom 
during  life  is  hsemoglobinuria.  The  Editor  thinks  that  this  must  be  the  same 
disease  as  that  described  by  Babes. 

SARCOSPORIDIJE. 

The  parasites  of  this  class  are  found  embedded  in  the 
tissues.  They  are  the  Psorospermice  utriculiformes. 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     189 

AniTnals  affected. — Sarcosporidiae  are  frequently  found  in 
all  the  animals  of  the  abattoir,  but  apparently  they  seldom 
cause  much  trouble  to  their  hosts. 

They  are  more  commonly  met  with  in  the  flesh  of  animals 
in  poor  condition ;  but  fat  animals  are  by  no  means  exempt. 
Pigs  are  often  the  harbourers  of  these  parasites,  and  in 
trichinosis  countries  muscular  psorospermosis  frequently  co- 
exists with  the  former  disease.  Cobbold  stated  that  it  was 
the  exception  not  to  find  them  in  the  flesh  of  cattle  which 
had  died  of  cattle-plague.  They  are  also  frequently  found  in 


FIG.  30. — Extremity  of  one  of 
Miescher's  tubes  with  its  con- 
tents. At  the  side  are  the 
kidney-shaped  bodies,  much 
enlarged. 


FIG.  31. —Falciform 
corpuscles  from 
the  BaBriamia 

gig  an  tea.       x 
850.— RAILLIET, 

NEUMANN. 


the  muscles  of  healthy  cattle.  They  have  been  found  by 
Cobbold  in  sheep.  Out  of  900  sheep  examined  by  Morot,  over 
30  per  cent,  were  found  to  harbour  sarcosporidiye.  These 
parasites  have  also  been  frequently  found  in  the  flesh  of  goats, 
deer,  fowls,  and  rabbits.  Lindemann  has  recorded  a  case  of 
psorospermosis  in  the  heart  of  a  man ;  but  this  is  quite  an 
exceptional  observation.  Leuckart  states  that  they  have 
never  been  found  in  the  muscles  of  human  beings. 

The  parasites.— There  are  two  principal  varieties  of  the 
utriculiformes,  viz.  the  Sarcocystis  and  the  Balbiania. 

The  sarcocysts  are  found  in  the  muscle  fibres.  They  vary 
greatly  in  size.  The  smaller  form,  which  is  known  as  the 


190 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


Sarcocystis  Tneischeri— Kainey's  corpuscles— measures  from 
2  to  3  mm.  x  •  08-  •  3  mm.  This  is  the  form  most  frequent!}7 
found  in  the  pig,  and  it  requires  the  microscope  for  its  identi- 
fication. When  a  preparation  of  affected  muscle  is  examined 
with  the  microscope,  the  sarcocysts,  if  viewed  longitudinally, 
appear  as  cigar-shaped  bodies,  which  are  bounded  by  a  mem- 
brane showing  a  fine  cross  striation.  Pressure  disintegrates 
the  membrane,  and  in  this  case  it  may  appear  ciliated.  The 
cyst  contains  a  number  of  kidney-shaped  bodies,  which  are 
looked  upon  as  spores  (Fig.  30). 


FIG.  32. — Rainey's  tubes,  enlarged  about 
40  diameters. 


In  sheep,large  sarcocysts— $.  tenella— measuring  f  in.  x  i  in., 
are  also  met  with.  Bertram  found  182  sheep  affected  out  of 
185  (Ostertag). 

The  Balbianite  are  larger  as  a  rule  than  the  sarcocysts. 
On  account  of  its  size  this  parasite  has  been  called  the  B.gigantea . 
It  varies  in  dimensions  from  a  barley-grain  to  the  kernel  of 
a  hazel-nut.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane,  and  the  internal 
cavity  is  partitioned  into  spaces,  which  contain  a  number  of 
bodies  of  a  crescent  shape— falciform  corpuscles  (Fig.  31).  If 
the  cysts  be  ruptured,  a  milky  juice  exudes,  which  011  micro- 
scopical examination  is  found  to  contain  the  before-mentioned 
corpuscles. 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     191 

Lesions.— The  alterations  seen  in  the  flesh  depend  to  a 
large  extent  on  the  number  of  parasites 
present.  When  the  muscles  are  infested 
in  a  moderate  or  medium  degree  by  the 
small  sarcocysts,  no  macroscopic  changes 
are  present.  The  flesh  may  appear 
perfectly  normal  to  the  eye,  but  the 
microscope  shows  the  psorosperms  in  the 
muscle  fibres.  The  latter  are  dilated, 
and  the  parasites  are  surrounded  by 
the  sarcous  substance,  which  they  have 
pressed  out  under  the  sarcolemma 
(Fig.  32). 

Some  of  the  invaded  fibres  have 
undergone  hyaline  degeneration.  The 
cysts  sometimes  become  calcified.  They 
then  appear  to  the  eye  as  calcareous 
specks  of  a  greyish  colour.  The  number 
of  parasites  present  varies  greatly. 
In  healthy-looking  beef  from  different 
animals,  Cobbold  estimated  them  at  from 
100  to  2000  in  an  ounce,  and  in  the 
heart  of  a  sheep,  a  portion  of  which  he 
ate,  there  were  about  1000  to  the  ounce. 

In  cases  of  severe  infestation,  altera- 
tions of  an  inflammatory  and  oedematous 
character  have  been  described  in  the 
muscles ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  these 
are  due  to  the  parasites,  for  other  patho- 
logical conditions  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  appearance  of  the  flesh  are 
often  present. 

When  the  larger  sarcocysts  are  pre- 
sent, as  in  the  sheep,  one  sees  greyish 
elongated  cysts  against  the  red  colour 
of  the  muscles 


1 9  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

The  Balbiania  is  found  oftenest  in  sheep,  but  oxen,  pigs, 
goats,  and  deer  are  also  frequently  infested  by  it.  They 
are  generally  situated  in  the  connective  tissue  structures. 
The  oesophagus  is  the  favourite  habitat,  but  they  are  also 
found  in  the  tongue,  the  muscles  of  the  pharynx,  those  of 
mastication,  and  those  of  the  neck,  trunk,  and  thighs.  They 
are  occasionally  found  under  the  serous  membranes.  Out 
of  900  sheep  examined  by  Morot,  272  had  cysts  in  the 
oesophagus  (Fig.  33).  Excepting  the  presence  of  the  cysts, 
the  tissues  are  little  altered. 

Inspection.— Many  feeding  experiments  with  infected  flesh 
have  been  conducted  on  animals,  the  results  of  which  have  been 
negative.  Leuckart,  however,  observed  sarcocysts  in  a  pig 
which  he  had  fed  on  infected  flesh ;  but  he  could  not  assure 
himself  that  infection  had  not  taken  place  in  some  other  way. 
As  already  stated,  Cobbold  ate  a  portion  of  a  badly  infested 
sheep's  heart,  and  he  experienced  no  ill  effects. 

If  there  be  any  chance  of  human  beings  contracting  muscular 
psorospermosis  from  eating  affected  flesh,  it  must  be  a  very 
small  one,  for,  notwithstanding  the  frequency  with  which  these 
parasites  exist  in  animals  of  the  abattoir,  the  condition  is 
practically  never  met  with  in  human  beings. 

Flesh  containing  'microscopic  sarcocysts,  then,  may  be 
passed  unless  their  presence  be  associated  with  alterations 
which  render  it  unmarketable.  In  the  case  of  carcases  con- 
taining parasites  of  macroscopic  size,  the  Balbianice  for  example, 
only  the  affected  parts  need  be  seized,  if  the  flesh  be  otherwise 
normal.  The  same  procedure  may  be  adopted  in  dealing 
with  cases  in  which  a  large  number  of  calcified  parasites  are 
present. 

COCCIDIOSIS 

This  term  is  applied  to  diseases  caused  by  Psorospermicv 
oviformes.  The  disease  is  also  referred  to  as  psorospermosis. 

Animals  affected.— Tine  species  which  most  frequently 
harbours  coccidia  is  the  rabbit,  but  these  parasites  are  by  no 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     193 

means  rarely  found  in  cattle  and  sheep.     Man  also   suffers 
from  coccidiosis. 

The  parasites.— The  psorospermiae  are  an  order  of  the 
Sporozoa.  There  are  several  varieties  described  in  man  and 
animals.  The  best  known  are  the  Coccidium  ovi forme  and  the 
Cf  perforans.  The  former  is  found  free  in  the  bile  ducts,  or 
enclosed  in  their  epithelial  cells.  It  is  met  with  in  rabbits 
and  human  beings.  The  latter  is  found  in  the  intestinal  glands 
and  epithelium  of  rabbits,  fowls,  cattle,  sheep,  and  human 
beings.  These  two  varieties  differ  very  little  from  each  other 
in  appearance. 


FIG.  34 — Adult  Coccidia 
from  the  liver. 


FIG.  35. —Liver  of  rabbit  with  Coccidium- nodules. 


The  intestinal  form  is  smaller  than  the  hepatic;  but  one 
cannot  expect  to  determine  the  variety  by  a  simple  micro- 
scopic examination  of  parasites  from  the  lesions.  It  is  possible, 
then,  that  some  of  the  intestinal  cases  are  due  to  the  ovifornie. 
The  adult  C.  oviforme  from  the  bile  ducts  is  ovoid,  and 
measures  from  30  to  40  /j,  x  14  to  20  //,.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  membrane  with  a  double  contour. 

In  some  the  contents  of  the  cell  are  separated  from  the 
wall,  and  appear  as  a  round  mass  in  the  centre ;  in  others 
the  cell  contents  are  granular  (Fig.  34). 

In  some  of  the  epithelial  cells  the  parasites  are  much 
smaller,  1-5  to  2  p. 

13 


1 94  MEAT  INSPECTION 

Lesions.— In  the  majority  of  cases  the  lesions  are  confined 
to  the  liver  or  bowel,  but  owing  to  interference  with  absorp- 
tion and  metabolism  the  body  may  be  very  emaciated. 

Liver.  — It  is  chiefly  in  the  rabbit  that  the  liver  is  the  seat 
of  disease.  The  organ  is  enlarged.  Greyish-white  nodules  are 
seen  on  its  surface  and  in  its  substance,  varying  in  size  from 
a  millet-seed  to  a  hazel-nut.  These  nodules  are  dilated  and 
thickened  bile  ducts  which  contain  coccidia.  Some  of  the 
nodules  are  dense  and  cheese-like  in  appearance.  These  might 
be  mistaken  for  tuberculous  nodules,  but  their  situation  in 


FIG.  36. — Cross-section  of  a  Coccidium-nodnle,  slightly  enlarged. 
The  contents  have  been  for  the  most  part  washed  out. 

the  bile  ducts  and  the  presence  of  coccidia  will  dispel  all  doubt 
as  to  the  true  nature  of  the  lesion  (Fig.  35). 

If  a  section  of  the  liver  be  examined  microscopically,  one 
finds  that  the  walls  of  the  dilated  bile  ducts  are  thickened  by 
fibrous  •  tissue.  Many  of  the  lining  cells  are  invaded  by  para- 
sites, and  some  of  them  are  shed.  At  certain  parts  of  the 
duct  nodules  having  a  papillomatous  structure  project  into 
the  lumen  (Fig.  36). 

In  the  liver  of  a  sheep  the  Editor  has  met  with  lesions  which 
he  considered  due  to  psorosperms.  Many  of  the  bile  ducts 
were  dilated  and  almost  destitute  of  epithelium.  Their  walls 


DISEASES  CAUSED  'BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     195 

were  thickened  and  showed  many  diverticula,  which  011 
cross-section  presented  an  adenomatous  appearance.  In  the 
lumen  of  the  ducts  were  many  ovoid  bodies  surrounded  by  a 
capsule.  The  contents  in  some  cases  were  granular ;  in  others 
the  appearance  wras  that  of  an  egg  undergoing  segmentation. 
These  bodies  measured  100  p  x  20.  Certain  areas  of  the  liver 
were  obliterated  bv  dense  collections  of  fibroblasts. 


FIG.  37. — Microscopical  section  of  lamb's  intestine 
affected  with  psorospermosis.  The  psorosperms 
are  seen  at  a. — M'FADYEAN. 

Intestines.— The  intestinal  lesions  depend  on  the  extent  of 
infestation  and  the  duration  of  the  disease. 

In  the  early  stages,  nothing  would  be  noticed  unless  a  micro- 
scopic examination  were  made.  The  epithelial  cells  would  then 
be  found  to  contain  refractile  bodies  which  often  displace  the 
nucleus. 

In  more  advanced  cases  areas  of  congestion  are  visible  to 
the  naked  eye,  and  reddish  nodules  about  the  size  of  a  small  pea 


1 96  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

are  found  on  the  mucous  membrane  at  various  parts  of  the 
bowel.  These  nodules  contain  coccidia,  and  they  are  some- 
times ulcerated.  On  examining  microscopic  sections  of  the 
bowel,  the  nodules  are  found  to  consist  mainly  of  distended 
Lieberklihnian  glands  and  adenoid  tissue.  The  glandular 
epithelium  is  in  a  state  of  active  proliferation,  and  many 
of  the  cells  contain  the  parasites.  The  villi  included  in  the 
tumours,  and  those  of  the  congested  areas,  are  enlarged.  Their 
epithelial  covering  is  thickened  at  some  parts;  at  others  it 
is  in  a  state  of  catarrh  (Fig.  37). 

In  fowls,  coccidia— psorosperms— have  been  found  inside  the 
cells  of  epitheliomatous  growths  on  the  skin ;  and  in  the  so-called 
"  brand  cancer  "  seen  in  Australian  cattle,  similar  bodies  have 
been  found.  It  is  by  no  means  certain,  however,  that  the 
parasites  are  the  cause  of  the  growths. 

Inspection.  —  Cases  of  hepatic  and  intestinal  coccidiosis, 
although  rare,  are  not  unknown  in  human  beings ;  but  it  is 
likely  that  infection  takes  place  through  the  medium  of 
vegetable  food  or  water,  rather  than  by  ingestion  of  affected 
organ. 

The  organs  most  frequently  affected,  viz.  the  liver  of  the 
rabbit  and  the  intestines  of  other  animals,  are  not  likely  to  be 
eaten  by  human  beings.  To  avoid  all  risk,  however,  they 
should  be  seized  and  destroyed.  The  intestines  of  affected 
sheep  should  not  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  sausages, 
unless  they  have  been  previously  submitted  to  some  sterilising 
process. 

The  carcases  may  be  passed,  if  they  are  not  emaciated,  and 
the  flesh  is  not  flabby  and  cedematous,  as  sometimes  happens 
when  diarrhoea  has  existed. 

CESTODES 

The  cestodes  are  flat  worms.  In  the  adult  state  they  are 
found  in  the  intestines  of  animals,  but  they  pass  an  intermediate 
stage  of  encystment  in  the  tissues  of  different  species  of  hosts. 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     197 

The  adults  are  the  tsenige,  and  the  intermediate  forms 
which  concern  the  Meat  Inspector  are  the  cysticerci,  echinococci, 
and  cosnuri.  Several  are  found  in  the  tissues  and  organs  of 
animals  used  for  butcher  meat.  A  general  idea  of  the  method 
of  infection  will  be  obtained  by  consulting  the  section  on 
Measles.  The  cystic  forms  must  be  dealt  with  in  particular. 
The  tsenige  may  be  discussed  en  bloc,  as  they  all  frequent  the 
intestines. 

MEASLES 

This  is  a  condition  caused  by  the  presence  of  certain  bladder- 
worms— cysticerci— in  the  organs  and  flesh  of  animals. 

Animals  affected.— The  ox  and  the  pig  are  the  animals 
whose  flesh  most  frequently  contains  cysticerci.  It  is  by  eating 
diseased  beef  and  pork  that  human  beings  become  harbourers 
of  tape- worms  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Cysticerci  have  occa- 
sionally been  found  in  the  tissues  of  sheep. 

There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  some  of  these  were 
Cysticercus  cellulosoc.  Olt  and  Bougert  found  the  latter  in  the 
muscles  of  one  animal  of  this  species,  and  Ostertag  gave  it  as  his 
opinion  that  certain  calcareous  nodules  found  in  the  hearts  of 
three  sheep  were  degenerated  C.  celluloses.  These  observations, 
however,  are  exceptional. 

The  goat  has  on  one  occasion  been  infected  experimentally 
with  the  measles  of  the  ox  by  Zenker,  but  this  animal  hardly 
requires  mention  in  a  section  on  measles,  unless  it  be  to  say 
that  it  does  not  suffer  naturally.  The  cysticercus  of  the  pig 
has  been  found  a  few  times  in  deer  and  monkeys. 

Man  and  the  dog  sometimes  harbour  the  C.  celluloses  in 
their  flesh  and  organs.  The  latter  observation,  of  course,  has 
more  bearing  on  the  objects  of  food  supervision,  than  on  the 
actual  inspection  of  meat. 

The  Para  sites.—  Measles  arises  from  different  forms  of  para- 
sites, although  they  all  belong  to  the  common  class  of  cestodes. 
From  the  researches  of  Von  Siebold,  Kuchenmeister,  Leuckart, 
Cobbold,  and  others,  we  know  that  the  bladder-worms,  be  they 


198  MEAT  INSPECTION 

cysticerci,  coenuri,  or  echinococci,  are  all  immature  or  inter- 
mediate forms  of  different  tseniae  or  tape-worms.  As  a  general 
rule  the  bladder  or  cystic  forms  do  not  occur  in  the  same  host 
as  the  adult  tseniae,  but  an  exception  to  this  rule  is  sometimes 
found  in  the  case  of  the  (7.  cellulosce,  which  is  occasionally  met 
with  in  the  muscles  and  organs  of  human  beings,  the  hosts  of 
the  mature  tape-worm  or  strobila.  It  is  with  the  measles-pro- 
ducing cestodes,  however,  that  we  are  concerned  at  present; 
the  others  will  be  dealt  with  elsewhere.  As  already  mentioned, 
the  animals  chiefly  affected  with  measles  are  the  ox  and  the 
pig,  two  of  the  most  important  victims  of  our  carnivorous 
habits.  The  parasite  of  the  ox  is  known  as  the  C.  bovis ;  that 
of  the  pig  as  the  C.  celluloses.  Measles  of  the  sheep  is  usually 
due  to  the  C.  tenuicollis,  but  inasmuch  as  its  strobila,  the  Tcenia 
marginata  of  the  dog,  never  inhabits  the  intestines  of  man, 
the  Editor  thinks  it  better  to  preserve  the  symmetry  of  arrange- 
ment by  leaving  its  description  to  the  next  section  of  this  volume. 

CYSTICERCUS   BOVIS   (Cobbold). 

This  is  the  cystic  form  of  the  T.  sagiiwta  (Goeze)  or  T '. 
mediocanellata  (Ivuchenmeister),  which  inhabits  exclusively  the 
intestines  of  man.  The  size  of  the  true  cysts  varies  from  a 
hemp-seed  upwards,  according  to  the  stage  of  their  development ; 
but  they  are  seldom  larger  than  a  pea.  They  have  occasionally, 
however,  been  found  to  measure  as  much  as  f  of  an  inch  in 
length. 

The  cyst  (Fig.  41)  is  a  delicate  membranous  sac,  spherical  or 
elliptical  in  shape,  and  of  a  greyish  colour.  It  contains  fluid. 
At  one  point  on  its  wall  a  small  nodule  about  the  size  of  a 
hemp-seed  is  seen.  This  contains  the  head  or  scolex  of  the 
tape-worm.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  chamber  of  the  caudal  vesicle, 
which  seems  to  be  formed  by  an  involution  of  the  membrane. 

The  cysticerci  as  a  class  are  monosomatic  and  monocephalic ; 
that  is  to  say,  only  one  chamber  is  formed,  which  contains  a 
single  scolex.  In  some  cysts  the  development  is  arrested,  and 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     199 

no  head  is  formed  (acephalocyst).  If  a  fresh  cyst  be  gently 
pressed  on  each  side  of  the  nodule,  the  scolex  can  be  evaginated 
and  examined  under  the  microscope  (Fig.  38).  The  size  of  the 
scolex  is  slightly  under  1  mm.  (-o1-  in.).  Under  a  low-power 
lens  it  is  seen  to  be  tetragonal  in  shape.  As  is  common  in 
tape- worm  heads,  four  suckers  are  seen  around  the  head,  if  it  be 
looked  at  from  above ;  if  viewed  laterally,  only  two  can  be  seen. 


FIG.  38.  —  Evaginated  head  of  Cysticercus 
x  30. 


It  differs  from  most  of  the  other  tape-  worm  heads  in  being 
devoid  of  booklets,  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  unarmed 
taenia  (T.  inermis).  The  rostellum,  too,  is  quite  rudimentary  ; 
it  is  represented  by  what  looks  like  a  frontal  sucker.  These 
characteristics  are  of  great  importance  in  distinguishing  this 
parasite  from  the  T.  solium  and  others  which  are  of  less 
consequence  to  the  Meat  Inspector,  but  may  nevertheless  be 


200  MEAT  INSPECTION 

found  occasionally  in  muscle—  Cysticerus  tenuicollis  and  Echino- 
coccus  veterinorum,  for  example.  About  the  head  and  the  con- 
stricted part  termed  the  neck,  a  large  number  of  small  calcareous 
particles  are  found,  but  this  also  applies  to  many  other  scolices. 

CYSTICERCUS   CELLULOSE 

This  is  the  cystic  form  of  the  T.  solium  (Eudolphi),  which 
has  its  habitat  in  the  intestines  of  man  only. 

The  cysts  are  elliptical,  and  very  like  those  of  the  G.  bovis. 
When  the  contained  head  is  evaginated,  however,  and  examined 


FIG.  39. — Bladder-worm  form  FIG.  40.— Larger  (anterior)  and  smaller 

the  pig,  after  the  digestion  (posterior)  hooks  of  Tasnia  solium. 

of  the  bladder,      x  20.  x  280. 

under  the  microscope,  it  shows  many  points  of  difference  (Fig.  39). 
The  head  is  more  spherical  in  shape,  and  slightly  smaller  ( •  6  to  -8 
mm.)  than  that  of  the  ox  parasite.  In  front  there  is  a  well- 
developed  rostellum,  which  carries  a  double  circlet  of  from  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-two  booklets.  The  rostellum,  however,  if  retracted, 
may  not  appear  prominent.  The  hooks  are  composed  largely 
of  inorganic  material  (silica).  On  this  account  they  resist 
degenerative  processes  for  a  longer  time  than  the  organic  parts, 
and  may  be  found  long  after  the  latter  have  disappeared ;  but 
the  inorganic  structures  may  themselves  be  removed  before 
the  cyst  has  undergone  complete  degeneration.  The  hooks 
measure  from  110  to  180  p.  Confusion  might  occasionally  arise 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     201 

between  this  parasite  and  the  Echinococcus  veterinorum,  but 
a  microscopic  examination  of  the  cyst  and  its  contents  will  at 
once  dispel  all  doubts. 

The  characteristics  of  the  parasites  which  may  be  mistaken 
for  those  of  measles  will  be  described  in  the  next  section. 

Infection  of  human  beings  and  animals.— When,  human 
beings  ingest  the  flesh  of  animals  containing  living  cysticerci 
of  the  species  under  consideration,  the  scolices  are  freed  from 
their  envelopes  by  the  gastric  juice,  and  the  corresponding  tape- 
worms develop  in  the  intestines.  Similarly,  when  animals 
swallow  food  which  has  been  soiled  by  human  faeces  containing 
the  eggs  or  ripe  proglottides  of  the  tape-worm,  they  become 
infected  with  measles.  The  eggs  of  the  T.  saginata  give  rise 
to  the  C.  bovis,  and  vice*  versa.  Those  of  the  T.  solium  give  rise 
to  the  C.  cellulosce. 

The  above  facts  have  been  proved  by  abundance  of  observa- 
tion and  experiment  on  men  and  animals.  Von  Beneden  first 
experimentally  infected  pigs  with  the  ova  of  T.  solium; 
Klichenmeister  experimented  successfully  on  criminals  with 
the  C.  cellulosce ;  and  many  others  have  since  recorded  similar  ex- 
periments. The  evidence  regarding  the  C.  bovis  and  T.  saginata 
is  equally  conclusive. 

In  Southern  and  Eastern  countries,  where  sanitation,  as 
applied  to  men  and  animals,  is  in  a  backward  state,  tape-worms 
are  commonly  found  in  men.  Owing  to  the  uncivilised  habits 
of  the  latter,  the  eggs  are  forced,  as  it  were,  on  the  unthinking 
beast,  and  they  are  returned  to  the  human  host  in  a  more 
mature  form. 

In  India  the  habits  of  the  lower  castes  have  resulted  in  the 
widespread  distribution  of  C.  bovis  in  the  ox  and  T.  saginata 
in  man.  The  same  is  true  of  many  other  primitive  countries, 
in  which  the  history  of  tape-worms  is  lost  in  antiquity.  Mr. 
Macfarlane,  M.E.C.V.S.,  Government  Veterinary  Inspector  in 
Malta,  has  recently  informed  the  Editor  that  measles  is  very 
common  in  the  cattle  imported  into  Valetta  from  Tunis  and 
Bar bary— especially  from  the  latter  country. 


2  o  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Measles  of  the  pig  is  also  very  commonly  met  with  in  Malta. 
The  recent  discussions  raised  in  the  Soc.  Cent,  de  Med.  Vet.  by 
M.  Morot  of  Troves,  show  that  measles  of  the  pig  is  well  known 
in  Southern  France.  Morot  also  points  out  the  necessity  of 
carefully  inspecting  the  cattle  imported  into  France  from 
Algeria,  as  Mr.  Macfarlane  does  for  those  coming  into  Malta 
from  the  same  quarter  of  the  world. 

The  recent  returns  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  show  that  in 
1 897  we  imported  from  foreign  countries  and  British  possessions 
3,010,387  cwts.  of  fresh  beef,  and  347,617  cwts.  of  fresh  pork. 
It  is  only  just  to  the  consumer  and  to  the  British  butcher 
that  this  flesh  should  be  subjected  to  a  more  adequate  inspec- 
tion than  at  present.  The  farther  animals  are  removed  from 
human  beings,  actually  and  metaphorically,  the  less  frequently 
will  taeniasis  and  measles  occur.  In  the  more  enlightened 
countries,  however,  they  are  still  too  common.  In  native  French 
cattle  and  swine  measles  is  often  seen.  In  Germany  measles 
is  by  no  means  rare.  In  some  parts  the  proportion  of  affected 
animals  is  very  high.  Keissmann,  quoted  by  Ostertag,  states 
that  in  Berlin,  from  1892  to  1897,  the  percentage  of  beef  measles 
increased  steadily  from  •  188  per  cent,  to  •  396  per  cent,  in  bulls, 
from  -147  per  cent,  to  -401  per  cent,  in  oxen,  and  from  '124 
per  cent,  to  •  322  per  cent,  in  cows :  possibly  the  examination 
became  more  searching.  The  records  of  measly  beef  from  the 
Prussian  abattoirs  show  a  large  increase  of  cases  during  the 
last  six  years  :  567  in  1892  ;  2629  in  1897  (Ostertag).  In  Saxony 
47  cases  were  recorded  in  1893  and  299  in  1897.  These  numbers 
do  not  represent  a  large  percentage  when  one  takes  into  account 
the  number  of  animals  slaughtered,  but  they  show  what  careful 
inspection  has  brought  to  light,  and  the  necessity  for  super- 
vision by  competent  officers.  Some  of  the  German  abattoir 
returns  show  considerably  over  1  per  cent,  of  cases.  In  America 
we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  C.  bovis  is  rare ;  Stiles 
examined  297  tape- worms,  all  of  which  turned  out  to  be  T. 
saginata.  Ward,  on  the  other  hand,  states  that  the  T.  solium 
is  very  uncommon  in  America ;  but  that  has  little  bearing  on 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     203 

the  frequency  of  measles  in  a  country  where  meat  is  eaten 
well  cooked.  In  Prussia  the  percentage  of  measly  swine 
slaughtered  was  •  067  in  1896 ;  in  Saxony,  •  017 ;  and  at  the 
Berlin  abattoir,  •  074.  It  is  worth  noting,  however,  that  the 
distribution  is  very  unequal;  the  percentages  are  very  much 
higher  in  some  abattoirs  than  in  others. 

In  Britain  no  statistics  on  the  frequency  of  measles  are  avail- 
able. There  is  no  doubt,  however/  that  it  exists  in  British 
swine.  In  the  past  few  years  the  Editor  has  met  with  several 
cases,  and  others  have  been  reported  by  practitioners.  Our 
sanitary  arrangements,  and  the  conditions  under  which  our 
animals  live  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  at  least,  are  calculated 
to  render  small  the  chances  of  infection  by  human  faeces.  We 
know,  however,  that  sewage  grass  is  freely  used  for  cows  in 
some  towns,  and  that  in  many  rural  districts  swine  have 
plenty  of  opportunity  to  indulge  a  coprophagous  inclination. 
In  countries  like  our  own,  where  some  control  is  exercised 
over  the  hygienic  surroundings  of  animals,  they  seldom  have 
the  opportunity  of  swallowing  an  enormous  number  of  tape- 
worm eggs.  Possibly  that  explains  why  we  hear  so  little  about 
measles  from  our  abattoirs.  It  is  not  customary  to  look  specially 
for  the  disease,  consequently  the  presence  of  a  few  cysticerci  in 
certain  muscles  may  easily  escape  observation. 

There  is  no  reason  why  certain  human  taenise  should  not 
in  a  short  time  be  stamped  out  of  existence  in  civilised  lands. 
It  is  related  of  the  Abyssinian  that  he  regards  his  tape-worm 
as  one  of  his  most  cherished  possessions ;  but  fortunately  no 
such  obstacle  to  stamping  out  these  parasites  can  exist  here, 
even  in  the  mind  of  the  man  who  refused  to  forbid  his  pig  the 
house  on  the  ground  that  it  paid  the  rent. 

The  fact  that  human  beings  are  sometimes  infected  with 
the  cystic  form  of  the  T.  solium  only  concerns  the  Meat  Inspector 
in  that  it  makes  this  form  of  taeniasis  the  more  to  be  feared. 
It  is  believed  that  a  man  harbouring  the  T.  solium  in  his  in- 
testines may  become  infected  with  the  C.  celluloses,  if  the  worm 
be  displaced  in  such  a  way  that  it  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  stomach. 


2  04  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

This,  however,  is  not  the  only  method  of  human  infection  by 
the  cysticercus,  but  the  reader  may  be  spared  an  indelicate 
explanation,  since  this  part  of  the  subject  belongs  to  the  province 
of  the  physician. 

Lesions  of  ox  measles.— In  the  tissues  the  cysticerci  excite  a 
proliferation  and  become  surrounded  by  a  delicate  adventitious 
cyst  of  fibrous  tissue.  The  latter  is  practically  of  the  same  size 
as  the  parasitic  cyst,  on  the  outer  surface  of  which  it  is  moulded. 
The  cysts  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  dried  pea  to  that  of  a  small 
bean,  and  their  appearance  is  that  already  described.  The 
bladders  which  have  been  ruptured  are,  of  course,  smaller.  If 
the  cyst  be  enucleated  from  the  tissues  a  cavity  is  left.  The 


FIG  41. — Cysticercus  T&nise,  saginatse, 
embedded  in  the  muscle.     Nat.  size. 


duration  of  life  of  the  parasite  in  its  intermediate  host  is  limited. 
According  to  Cobbold,  degenerated  cysts  only  are  found  about 
six  months  after  infestation ;  but  of  course  the  latter  may  have 
occurred  at  different  times,  so  that  living  and  dead  cysticerci 
may  be  found  in  the  same  beast.  The  necrosed  cysts  are  usually 
shrivelled  up.  They  are  about  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed,  of  a 
yellowish  or  greenish  yellow  colour,  and  are  frequently  calcined. 
Cobbold  and  Morot  have  both  pointed  out  that  in  some  of  them 
a  purulent-looking  material  of  a  greenish  or  yellow  colour  may 
be  found  between  the  true  cyst  and  its  capsule,  which  is 
evidence  that  the  degenerative  process  is  invading  the  cyst  from 
without  inwards.  This  is  important  to  know,  because  the 
inspector  by  using  the  microscope  may  hope  still  to  find  some 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES 


205 


trace  of  the  scolex  inside  the  cyst,  although  degeneration  may 
have  commenced.     Where  it  is  advanced,  Ostertag  states  that 
the  calcareous  corpuscles  of  the  parasite  can  still  be  found. 
The  favourite  seats  of  the  bladder- worms  are  the  root  and 


FIG.  42. — Measles  iii  heart  of  ox. 
(From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  Macfarlane,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Malta.) 

fraenum  of  the  tongue,  the  muscles  of  mastication— ptery golds 
and  masseter  muscles— and  the  heart.  They  are  often  enough, 
however,  present  in  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  haunch,  and 
other  regions. 

With  the  exception  of  the  heart,  the  cysts  are  seldom  found 
in  internal  organs.     Adipose  tissue  is  almost  always  free  from 


206 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


them.  Morot,  however,  lately  recorded  a  case  of  pulmonary 
cysticercosis  in  the  ox,  and  referred  to  another  case  reported 
by  Mejer. 

The  number  of  cysts  is  very  variable.  It  depends  on  the 
quantity  of  eggs  swallowed.  Dr.  Joseph  Hemming  counted 
as  many  as  300  in  a  piece  of  the  psoas  muscle  weighing  one 


FIG.  43.— Measles  in  the  hind  quarter  of  an  ox. 
(From  a  photograph  by  Mr.  Macfarlane,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Malta.) 

pound.  This,  however,  was  in  India,  where  the  conditions  are 
such  that  an  animal  may  swallow  thousands  of  eggs.  In  cases 
of  experimental  infection,  for  which  enormous  numbers  of  eggs 
were  used,  the  flesh  and  organs  were  simply  infested  with 
bladders.  Leuckart  found  them  in  mam'  of  the  lymph  glands 
in  one  of  his  experimentally  infected  calves.  In  civilised 
countries,  however,  the  number  of  cysts  is  usually  small,  and 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    207 

they  are  often  confined  to  the  seats  of  election.  To  discover 
them  one  must  make  a  careful  examination  of  the  muscles  by 
a  series  of  longitudinal  incisions.  In  the  muscles  they  are  seated 
between  the  fasciculi  and  in  the  intermuscular  connective  tissue. 
When  only  a  few  cysts  are  present,  the  muscle  is  not  much  altered 
to  the  eye.  When  they  are  numerous  the  tissue  is  paler  than 
normal,  flabby  and  oedematous.  If  the  muscle  be  examined 
under  the  microscope,  the  fibres  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
cysts  present  a  hyaline  appearance. 

Lesions  of  pig  measles.— The  commonest  seats  of  the  G. 
celluloses  are  the  tongue,  the  heart,  the  muscles  of  mastication, 
those  of  the  neck,  the  chest,  and  the  muscular  portion  of  the 
diaphragm.  They  are  also  found  pretty  often  in  the  liver  and 
nerve  centres.  The  Editor  has  seen  the  liver  of  an  Irish  pig 
simply  crammed  with  them.  Morot  has  lately  recorded  a  case  of 
splenic  cysticercosis  of  the  pig.  As  in  the  ox,  a  generalised 
distribution  seems  to  depend  on  infection  by  a  large  number  of 
eggs.  The  subcutaneous  fat  is  usually  free  from  cysts,  but  this  is 
by  no  means  an  absolute  rule.  The  lymph  glands  may  be  invaded 
in  bad  cases.  The  appearances  of  the  flesh  and  the  changes 
undergone  by  the  parasites  are  practically  the  same  as  in  beef 
measles,  but,  of  course,  the  contents  of  the  cysts  differ  from 
those  of  the  latter.  There  may  only  be  one  or  two  bladders 
present  in  an  animal,  but  they  are  usually  much  more  numerous 
in  the  pig  than  in  the  ox,  because  of  the  many  opportunities 
given  the  former  to  indulge  the  coprophagous  appetite.  It  is 
said  that  the  bladder-worms  live  for  a  longer  time  in  the  pig 
than  in  the  ox. 

Inspection.— It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  description  of 
the  lesions  that  the  number  of  cysticerci  found  in  animals  varies 
within  wide  limits.  The  cases  may  be  divided  for  the  purpose 
of  consideration  into  three  categories.  First,  there  may  be 
a  large  number  present  throughout  the  body ;  secondly,  there 
may  be  a  dozen  or  so ;  thirdly,  it  may  happen  that  only  one 
or  two  apparently  isolated  parasites  are  found  in  the  most 
favoured  resorts.  In  the  last  two  cases  the  inspector  must 


2o8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

make  several  longitudinal  incisions  into  the  flesh  at  the 
commoner  seats  of  the  parasite  in  order  to  detect  it.  In.  the 
first  class  of  cases  there  is  no  question  about  the  duty  of  the 
inspector.  He  should  seize  and  destroy  the  whole  carcase,  for 
in  addition  to  its  infecting  power,  the  flesh  is  pale,  flabby, 
watery,  and  consequently  unmarketable.  In  the  second  and 
third  classes  the  question  is  rather  more  complex,  for  the 
carcase  may  be  of  good  appearance.  It  does  not  follow  that 
parasites  will  be  present  in  the  hind  quarters,  even  when  several 
have  been  found  in  the  anterior  muscles ;  but  one  must  always 
suspect  it.  To  cut  the  carcase  into  pieces  small  enough  to  enable 
one  to  say  that  the  whole  has  been  examined  and  the  affected 
parts  removed,  would  be  tantamount  to  total  seizure,  for  its 
sale,  in  this  country  at  least,  would  be  spoiled.  Its  mutilated 
condition,  however,  would  not  prevent  it  being  employed  for 
the  manufacture  of  sausages,  and  for  this  purpose  it  might  be 
used  if  the  examination  proved  satisfactory. 

Thorough  cooking  kills  the  parasites.  Perroncito  has  shown 
that  they  are  destroyed  by  a  few  minutes'  exposure  to  a 
temperature  of  50°  C.  (122°  F.).  In  some  of  the  German 
abattoirs  the  carcases  of  measly  animals  considered  fit  for 
food  are  cut  into  suitable  pieces  and  thoroughly  cooked  or  steril- 
ised before  sale.  No  arrangements,  however,  are  available  for 
supervised  cooking  in  our  abattoirs,  nor  is  it  at  all  certain  that 
an  extensive  market  would  be  found  for  the  material,  however 
excellent  it  might  be.  Moreover,  it  has  yet  to  be  shown  that 
measles  exists  in  our  animals  to  such  an  extent  that  the  utilisa- 
tion of  suspicious  carcases  is  a  serious  consideration .  At  the  same 
time  one  must  admit  that  no  methodical  system  of  examination 
for  cysticerci  is  practised  in  our  abattoirs,  and  any  one  acquainted 
with  the  method,  or  rather  want  of  method,  in  vogue  even  in 
the  best  of  them,  will  understand  how  easily  the  presence  of  a 
few  parasites  may  be  overlooked.  Pickling  renders  the  flesh 
harmless  in  about  three  weeks,  but  even  a  shorter  time  would 
suffice,  since  thorough  cooking  is  necessary  in  order  to  extract 
the  brine  from  meat  of  this  kind.  The  owner  of  a  carcase, 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     209 

moderately  measled  but  otherwise  of  good  quality,  might  be 
allowed  to  pickle  the  apparently  healthy  parts  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  authorities.  He  might  also  be  allowed  to  make 
use  of  the  fat  or  lard  after  it  had  been  melted  and  strained 
through  a  fine  sieve.  In  the  absence  of  arrangements  for 
carrying  out  the  above  prophylactic  manipulations,  or  failing 
the  assent  of  the  proprietor  to  conform  to  them,  the  duty 
of  the  inspector  should  be  to  seize  the  whole  carcase.  The 
suggestions  with  regard  to  the  destruction  of  cysticerci  in 
flesh  by  prolonged  cold  storage  appear  to  the  Editor  to  be 
impracticable. 

Those  pigs  which  come  in  the  third  category,  where  only 
one  or  two  cysticerci  have  been  found  by  the  ordinary  method 
of  examination,  should,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Editor,  be  treated 
like  those  in  the  second.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  an  animal 
could  have  swallowed  only  a  single  egg.  Indeed,  it  is  much  more 
likely  that  a  proglottis  containing  many  has  been  swallowed.  The 
discovery  of  one  cysticercus,  then,  argues  the  presence  of  others, 
although  the  method  of  examination  may  have  failed  to  reveal 
them.  In  man  the  T.  solium  may  give  rise  to  such  serious 
consequences  that  one  cannot  afford  to  be  lenient.  In  dealing 
with  cattle  there  is  not  the  same  call  for  severe  measures.  The 
T.  saginata  is  certainly  an  inconvenience  to  its  human  host, 
but  its  cystic  forms  do  not  invade  his  muscles  and  organs. 
Accordingly,  when  a  few  cysticerci  have  been  found  at  the  seats 
of  election  in  an  ox,  and  exploratory  incisions  into  the  other  parts 
have  failed  to  disclose  more,  the  apparently  healthy  portions 
might  be  put  on  the  market  in  the  fresh  state.  To  destroy 
them  altogether  because  there  is  a  slight  chance  of  an  odd 
individual  getting  a  T.  saginata  from  eating  the  flesh,  seems 
to  the  Editor  to  be  an  exaggerated  form  of  meat  inspection. 
Moreover,  the  very  fastidious  can  destroy  the  last  element  of 
risk  by  refusing  to  eat  a  joint  that  has  not  been  cooked  right 
into  the  centre.  Were  it  customary  in  this  country  to  sell 
meat  with  instructions  that  it  must  be  well  cooked  before  being 
eaten,  one  might  apply  the  same  rules  to  pork  as  to  beef.  To 
14 


2 1  o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

label  a  joint,  however,  would  be  at  present  to  prevent  its  sale ; 
and  for  reasons  already  explained,  the  consequences  of  putting 
measled  pork  on  the  market  without  warning  might  be 
irremediable.  The  same  cannot  be  said  of  measled  beef, 
although  it  is  advisable  that  ordinary  care  be  exercised  to 
keep  it  out  of  consumption.  When  degenerated  cysts  are 
numerously  present  in  ox  flesh,  be  they  calcined  or  not,  the 
parts  containing  them  should  be  considered  unmarketable. 
If  the  degenerated  cysts  be  not  very  numerous,  the  flesh 
might  be  passed  after  removal  of  the  lesions ;  but  one  should 
always  look  for  living  parasites  as  well,  since  all  of  them  may 
not  have  undergone  degeneration. 

In  dealing  with  pork  sausages,  Schmidt-Mulheim  recom- 
mends that  they  be  digested  in  artificially  prepared  gastric  juice, 
since  it  acts  more  slowly  on  the  scolices  and  their  booklets  than 
on  the  flesh  particles.  This,  however,  would  be  a  laborious 
undertaking.  It  would  be  much  better  to  take  care  that  no 
flesh  deserving  to  be  condemned  gets  into  the  hands  of  sausage  - 
makers.  Lastly,  it  should  be  remembered  that  those  who  are 
working  with  measly  flesh  may  by  their  fingers  carry  the 
scolices  to  their  food. 

CYSTICERCUS   TENUICOLLIS 

This  is  the  cystic  form  of  the  Tcenia  marginata  which 
inhabits  the  intestines  of  the  dog. 

Animals  affected.— The  parasite  may  be  found  in  all  wild 
and  domesticated  ruminants,  but  it  is  most  commonly  met 
with  in  sheep.  The  reason  for  this  is  the  important  part  that 
the  dog  plays  in  the  herding  of  these  animals.  Young  sheep 
are  apparently  much  more  easily  infected  than  older  animals. 
At  the  Edinburgh  abattoir  this  parasite  is  only  second  in 
point  of  frequency  to  the  8.  rufescens  of  the  sheep.  The 
Editor  has  only  on  one  occasion  met  with  it  in  the  pig. 

The  parasite.— The  size  of  the  bladder- worm  depends  on 
its  age  and  situation.  In  the  serous  cavities  it  may  reach 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    211 


the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  or  even  larger.  In  this  situation 
the  parasites  are  contained  in  adventitious  sacs  formed 
from  the  peritoneal  tissue.  They  look  like  small  water- 
bladders,  and  in  some  cases  the  serous  covering  is  pulled  down 
by  the  weight  of  the  cyst,  so  that  a  constricted  part  is 
formed  at  the  point  of  attachment.  The  true  cyst  (Fig. 
44)  shows  an  attenuated  portion  or  neck,  hence  the 
name  "slender-necked  hydatid."  The  scolex  is  contained 
inside  the  neck,  and  can  be  evaginated  by  pressure. 

As  in  the  case  of  other  cysticerci, 
only  one  head  is  present  in  each  cyst. 
It  may,  however,  be  acephalous. 
In  cases  of  experimental  infection, 
the  bladders  have  been  found 
to  have  attained  the  length  of 
from  -6  to  3-5  mm.  in  ten  days. 
Leuckart  states  that  seven  weeks 
after  infection,  they  measured  15 
mm.  Their  size,  then,  varies 
greatly.  The  heads  are  well  de- 
veloped in  cysts  of  forty  days' 
standing  (Baillet),  and  in  the  fully 
developed  cysts  they  possess  a 

double  row  of  booklets.  These  Fm>  ^_Cysiiccrcus  iMicMis. 
are  about  the  same  length  as,  but  —NEUMANN. 

more   slender    than,    those    of    C. 

cellulose,  a  parasite  for  which  this  one  might  be  mistaken. 
The  roots  of  the  booklets  of  C.  tenuicollis  (Fig.  45)  are  also 
longer  than  those  of  the  former,  and  the  blades  are  less 
curved.  The  usually  large  size,  the  difference  of  habitat, 
and  the  long  neck  of  C.  tenuicollis,  however,  are  in  the 
vast  majority  of  cases  the  best  guides  for  distinguishing 
the  one  cysticercus  from  the  other.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
distinguish  the  parasite  under  consideration  from  the  C.  bovis, 
for  the  latter  is  unarmed. 

Lesions.  —  The   embryos  when  freed  from  the  egg  enter 


2 1 2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

the  blood  vessels.  In  this  way  they  may  get  to  various  parts 
of  the  body.  They  have  been  found  in  the  liver,  lungs,  pleura, 
heart,  pericardium,  and  muscles,  but  the  peritoneum  is  by  far 
the  most  frequent  habitat.  In  this  situation  they  may  be 
found  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  liver,  or  to  the  adipose 
tissue  of  the  mesentery  and  omentum.  The  number  found 
in  one  animal  varies  from  one  to  a  dozen  or  more.  Sometimes 
they  are  shrivelled  up  and  calcined.  According  to  Leuckart 
and  Baillet,  most  of  the  embryos  gain  the  peritoneum  by 
boring  their  way  through  the  substance  of  the  liver,  which 
they  reach  by  way  of  the  portal  vessels.  Traces  of  their 
wanderings  can  be  found  in  the  form  of  greyish  or  blood- 


FIG.  45. — Hooklets  of  T&nia  margiuata.      x  280. 

stained  streaks;  but  they  seldom  develop  in  the  organ. 
In  passing  through  the  serous  covering  they  may  give  rise 
to  severe  peritonitis ;  but  lesions  of  the  latter  description 
are  seldom  seen,  except  in  experimental  cases  of-  infection, 
in  which  large  numbers  of  eggs  have  been  used.  Still, 
Averadere  has  reported  an  enzootic  of  cysticercosis  which 
carried  off  fifteen  out  of  thirty  lambs  aged  three  months. 
The  lesions  were  those  of  acute  peritonitis  and  pleurisy.  The 
liver  and  lungs  were  crammed  with  young  cysticerci,  and 
some  measuring  f  of  an  inch  were  found  in  the  peritoneal 
cavity. 

In  the  lungs,  only  the  early  forms  have  been  met 
with. 

In  the  muscles  and  subcutaneous  tissues  of  sheep,  young 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     213 

forms  have  been  observed— measles  of  the  sheep  (C.  ovis)— 
and  isolated  adult  cysts  have  been  met  with  in  a  few  cases. 
It  is  possible,  then,  that  these  cysts  might  also  be  found  in 
the  muscles  of  the  pig,  and  be  mistaken  for  C.  cellulosce.  The 
latter  parasite  is  also  exceptionally  met  with  in  sheep.  The 
differences  already  referred  to  between  the  cysts  and  scolices 
of  the  two  parasites,  added  to  those  of  situation  in  other 
organs,  should  prevent  any  mistake  being  made  in  the  diagnosis 
of  the  muscle  lesion.  Degenerated  cysts  of  Ccenurus  cerebralis 
are  sometimes  present  in  the  muscles  and  organs  of  young 
sheep  (see  CCENUEUS). 

Inspection.  — It  is  mainly  with  sheep  that  the  inspector 
has  to  deal  in  this  case.  The  affected  animals  are  often  in  very 
good  condition.  In  such  cases  the  carcases  should  be  passed 
after  the  affected  organs  have  been  removed.  The  latter 
should  be  destroyed,  so  that  dogs  may  not  eat  thereof  and 
become  infected  with  T.  marginata.  When  the  carcases 
are  emaciated,  as  occasionally  happens,  they  should  be  dealt 
with  according  to  the  degree. 

CYSTICERCUS  PisiFORMis  (Zeder) 

This  is  the  cystic  form  of  the  T.  serrata,  which  inhabits 
the  intestines  of  the  dog.  The  cysticercus  is  found  chiefly  in 
the  peritoneal  cavities  of  hares  and  rabbits.  It  reaches  its 
habitat  in  a  way  which  is  similar  to  that  taken  by  the 
C.  tenuicollis.  In  Scotland,  rabbits  are  frequent  harbourers 
of  this  parasite.  The  adult  cysts  vary  in  size  from  a  pea  to 
a  nut,  but  most  of  them  are  of  the  former  size.  At  one  end 
the  cyst  shows  a  small  hard  nodule.  This  is  the  chamber 
containing  the  head.  It  may  be  retracted  inside  the  chamber, 
or  it  may  be  evaginated  (Figs.  46  and  47). 

The  head  has  a  double  row  of  hooklets,  which  are  relatively 
much  longer  than  those  of  other  scolices. 

Inspection.— In  the  interests  of  the  dog,  the  affected  organs 
should  be  destroyed.  Affected  rabbits  are  often  very  much 


214 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


emaciated,  and  quite  unfit  for  the  market ;  but,  owing  to  the 
custom  of  selling  them  in  the  disembowelled  condition,  the 
cause  can  often  onlv  be  surmised. 


FIG.  46. — Head  of  Oysticercus  jrisi- 
formis  just  mature,      x  40. 


FIG.  47. — Head  and  body  of  Cysti- 
cercus  pisiformis  in  completely 
evaginated  state,  x  19. 


ECHINOCOCCUS   VETERINOEUM 

This  is  the  cystic  form  of  the  T.  echinococcus  of  the  dog. 

Animals  affected.  — All  the  domesticated  herbivora  and 
omnivora  may  be  infected  by  the  hydatids  of  the  T.  echino- 
coccus. 

The  parasite  is  also  found  in  the  organs  of  wild  animals. 
It  is  by  no  means  rare  in  human  beings.  Cattle  and  sheep  are 
its  most  frequent  hosts  in  this  country ;  but,  strange  as  it  may 
appear,  when  one  remembers  the  relations  of  the  sheep  and 
the  dog,  cattle  are  the  more  often  affected  of  the  two,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Edinburgh  at  least. 

The  pig  is  only  occasionally  invaded  by  the  hydatids.     Their 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    215 

frequency,  however,  depends  on  that  of  T.  echinococcus  in  the 
dog,  so  that  the  number  of  cases  in  this  or  that  district  will 
vary  from  time  to  time. 

The  parasite.— The  E.  veterinorum  is  polysomatic  and 
poly  cephalic ;  several  chambers  are  formed,  inside  of  which 
five,  ten,  or  even  more  scolices  are  developed. 

According  to  Leuckart,  the  echinococci  are  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  two  months  after  reaching  the  tissues.  They  then 
measure  about  1-5  mm.  in  diameter.  The  heads  appear  in 


vf 


FIG.  48. — Diagram  showing  the  development  of  daughter  and 
granddaughter  echinococcus  cysts. — NEUMANN. 

about  five  months,  when  the  bladders  have  a  diameter  of 
about  4  of  an  inch.  The  size  of  the  fully-formed  hydatid, 
however,  varies  according  to  the  density  of  the  tissues  which 
enclose  it,  and  is  roughly  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  that  of  a 
bantam's  egg.  The  hydatid  lies  inside  an  adventitious  cyst  of 
fibrous  tissue.  The  true  cyst  is  made  up  of  two  layers.  The 
outer  is  dense  and  laminated ;  the  inner,  which  is  the  germinal 
layer,  is  membranous.  From  the  inner  surface  of  the  internal 
membrane  several  proligerous  vesicles  are  developed.  The 
scolices  develop  inside  the  latter.  In  some  cases  daughter 


2l6 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


cysts  arise  from  the  mother  vesicle,  either  exogenously  or 
endogenously  (Fig.  48).  These  have  the  same  structure  as 
the  mother  cyst ;  and  even  a  third  generation  may  form  from 
them  (granddaughter  cysts).  This  is  probably  the  explanation 
of  the  racemose  forms  of  echinococci  which  are  frequently 
present  in  the  livers  of  cattle  (Fig.  49). 

There  is  still  another  form  of  echinococcus  cyst,  which  is 
exceedingly  rare  in  animals  in  this  country.  This  is  the  E. 
multilocularis.  On  section  it  consists  of  manv  small  cavities 


FIG.  49.- 


-Echinococcus  racemosus. 
Nat.  size. 


FIG.  50.  —  Section  through 
an  Echinococcus  multi- 
locularis. Nat.  size. 

about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  bound  together  by  fibrous  tissue. 
(Fig.  50). 

The  Editor  has  only  met  with  one  case  of  the  latter  class.  It 
was  present  on  the  surface  of  an  ox's  liver,  and  was  about  the 
size  of  a  hen's  egg.  Whether  these  are  related  to  the  racemose 
forms,  which  are  fairly  common,  it  is  difficult  to  say.  Both  are 
acephalous,  but  the  cavities  of  the  racemose  variety  are  often 
about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  and  they  are  separated  only  by 
a  thick  membrane.  Degenerated  cysts  are  commonly  found, 
but  these  will  be  described  with  the  lesions.  According  to  the 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     217 

experience  of  the  Editor,  the  apparently  normal  cysts  met 
with  in  the  livers  of  cattle  often  contain  no  heads.  If  a  normally 
developed  cyst  be  ruptured,  and  the  fluid  examined  with  a 
power  of  eighty,  the  heads  will  be  distinctly  seen  (Fig.  51). 
Many  calcareous  particles  are  also  present.  The  heads  measure 
about  300  u  when  fullv  extended,  but  the  anterior  end  is  often 


FIG.  51. — Scolices  of  the  EcMnococcus  veterinorum.  The 
head  is  evaginated  in  two  of  the  scolices  (Reichert, 
obj.  7). 

invaginated  into  the  posterior  part.  Many  bright  calcareous 
particles  are  present  in  the  scolices.  When  the  anterior  part 
is  visible  it  shows  a  rostellum  surrounded  by  a  double  row  of 
booklets.  A  high-power  lens  shows  that  the  hooks  are  remark- 
able for  their  shortness. 

Lesions.— By  far  the  most  common  seats  of  the  E.  veterin- 
orum are  the  lungs  and  liver.  The  hydatids  have  also  been 
found  in  the  spleen,  kidney,  pancreas,  heart,  aorta,  serous 


2 1 8  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

membranes,  brain,  and  in  the  medullary  cavities  of  long 
bones.  They  have  in  a  few  instances  been  found  in  the 
muscles  of  the  pig  and  the  horse. 

Their  presence  in  organs  other  than  the  liver  and  lungs, 
however,  is  exceptional.  Presumably  the  embryos  travel  by 
the  blood  vessels,  but,  as  they  are  most  likely  to  enter  the  portal 
branches  from  the  intestines,  the  majority  will  be  arrested  in 
the  capillaries  of  the  liver. 


FIG.  52. — Liver  of  pig  affected  with  EcTiinococcus  vcterinorum. — 
RAILLIET,  NEUMANN. 

Liver.— The  number  of  parasites  present  varies  from  a 
single  one  to  several  hundreds.  In  the  graver  cases  of  infection 
the  organ  is  enormously  enlarged.  Frequently  it  weighs  over 
100  lb.  in  the  ox  (normal,  about  11  Ib.)  The  bladders  are 
seen  on  the  surface  and  in  the  substance  of  the  organ  (Fig.  52). 

The  capsule  over  the  vesicles  which  project  from  the  sur- 
face is  atrophied  and  opaque.  In  most  of  the  cases  examined 
by  the  Editor,  a  very  large  number  of  the  vesicles  were  degener- 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    219 

ated.  These  are  always  more  or  less  shrunken.  They  may 
contain  fluid,  or  they  may  be  dry.  The  true  cyst  is  shrivelled 
up  into  a  yellowish-coloured  cheese-like  material,  which  floats 
in  the  fluid,  or  adheres  to  the  collapsed  wall,  when  the  fluid  is 
gone.  As  many  of  these  contain  neither  heads  nor  booklets, 
it  is  probable  that  they  were  acephalous  cysts ;  but  of  course 
the  hooks  do  not  persist  indefinitely.  The  dry  cysts  look 
rather  like  encapsuled  tubercles  in  which  the  centre  has  become 
caseous.  One  can  always  in  the  case  of  the  hydatid,  however, 
pull  the  yellow  part  out  with  a  pair  of  forceps.  It  comes  away 
en  masse,  and  one  sees  that  it  is  really  a  folded  membrane. 
Sometimes  these  degenerated  forms  are  calcareous. 

If  undegenerated  forms  are  also  present,  there  is  little 
difficulty  in  making  the  diagnosis ;  but  the  Editor  has  several 
times  met  with  cases  in  which  one  or  two  caseous  cysts,  devoid 
of  booklets,  were  present  along  with  true  tuberculous  lesions. 

The  microscope  shows  that  the  liver  tissue  is  atrophied 
around  the  cyst,  and  it  is  invaded  by  cells  of  the  epithelioid 
type.  Giant  cells  may  also  be  present.  The  presence  of  booklets 
in  the  parasitic  lesions,  and  of  tubercle  bacilli  in  the  case  of 
tuberculosis,  will  establish  the  diagnosis.  Where  both  are 
absent,  some  difficulty  may  be  experienced  in  determining  the 
nature  of  the  lesion,  in  the  .liver  at  least.  This  organ,  however, 
is  never  the  seat  of  primary  tubercles,  except  occasionally  in 
very  young  animals.  Moreover,  the  centre  of  the  parasitic  lesion 
can  be  completely  enucleated  from  the  adventitious  mem- 
brane, the  inner  surface  of  which  is  smoother,  more  regular, 
and  usually  thinner  than  the  capsule  of  an  old  tubercle. 

Lungs.  — In  the  experience  of  the  Editor,  one  almost  never 
finds  the  lungs  so  seriously  invaded  as  the  liver.  The  number 
of  hydatids  present  varies  usually  from  one  to  six.  When 
located  at  the  surface  they  bulge  out  the  pleura,  which  is 
usually  opaque  over  the  vesicle.  Those  in  the  substance  of  the 
organ  can  be  felt  to  fluctuate  and  roll  under  the  fingers.  Occa- 
sionally a  cyst  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  bronchus  will  cause 
atrophy  of  the  wall,  and  evacuate  its  contents  into  the  tube. 


2  2  o  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Muscles.— The  muscles  are  seldom  invaded  by  the  hydatids. 
One  or  two  cases  have  been  described  in  the  pig.  Lemke 
counted  eighteen  in  a  pound  of  pork.  Megnin  has  reported 
a  case  of  a  Eussian  pig,  in  which  the  ilio-spinal  muscle  was 
crowded  with  cysts  of  the  echinococcus.  He  did  not  see 
the  other  muscles,  but  they  were  said  to  contain  many 
hydatids. 

Inspection.— The  T.  echinococcus  does  not  develop  in  the 
intestines  of  human  beings,  so  that  the  presence  of  hydatids 
in  animals  does  not  constitute  a  direct  source  of  danger  to  man. 
It  is  by  the  faeces  of  infected  dogs  contaminating  water,  vege- 
tables, and  possibly  plates,  that  man  is  infected  with  this  parasite. 
The  affected  organs  of  animals,  however,  should  be  seized  and 
immediately  destroyed.  This  is  all  the  more  necessary,  since 
infection  of  dogs  with  the  tape-worms  constitutes  a  direct 
menace  to  the  health  of  the  human  community.  When  the 
liver  is  badly  infected  the  carcase  is  often  emaciated,  and  the 
flesh  is  flabby  and  watery.  Such  carcases  must  be  dealt  with 
according  to  their  appearance ;  but  in  the  absence  of  serious 
alterations  in  the  flesh  there  is  no  need  to  interfere.  The 
possibility  of  the  muscles  containing  cysts  is  very  slight,  and 
their  presence  would  not  injure  any  one  who  ingested  them. 

CCENURUS    CEREBRALIS 

This  is  the  hydatid  form  of  the  T.  ccenurus  of  the 
dog.  It  is  the  cause  of  the  disease  known  as  "sturdy," 
or  "  gid." 

Animals  affected.  —  All  ruminants  may  be  invaded  by  this 
parasite.  It  is  much  more  commonly  seen  in  the  sheep,  how- 
ever, than  in  any  of  the  others.  Young  sheep  up  to  the  age 
of  two  years  are  apparently  more  liable  to  contract  sturdy 
than  older  animals,  but  the  latter  are  not  exempt.  We  have 
no  recent  statistics  concerning  the  frequency  of  this  parasite. 
The  affected  animals  are  sent  into  our  city  abattoirs  to  be 
slaughtered  in  the  spring  of  the  year.  As  it  is  not  customary 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     221 

for  the  inspectors  to  examine  the  brains  of  animals,  it  is 
likely  that  a  good  many  cases  pass  unnoticed.  The  Editor 
has  on  two  occasions  obtained  sheep's  brains  containing  this 
parasite  from  a  butcher's  shop. 

The  parasite.  —  The  C.  cerebralis  is  polysomatic,  but  it 
is  monocephalic.  Two  or  three  hundred  chambers  may  be 
formed,  but  each  contains  only  one  scolex  (Fig.  53). 

In  the  brain,  the  c}7sts  are  as  large  as  a  pea  about  three 
weeks  after  infection  (Baillet).  The  heads  appear  about  the 
fortieth  day,  but  the  cyst  is  not  mature  until  about  the  second 
month ;  even  then  some  of  the  scolices  are  incompletely 
developed.  The  mature  bladders  are  usually  about  the  size  of 
a  small  walnut,  but  they  may  be  much  larger.  When  ex- 


FIG.  53. — Heads  of  Ocenurus.      x  25. 

tr acted,  one  sees  numerous  grey  specks,  which  are  arranged 
in  patches  on  the  wall.     These  contain  the  heads. 

Lesions.— It  is  quite  exceptional  to  find  the  cysts  in  an 
advanced  state  of  development,  except  in  the  brain  and  the 
spinal  cord.  The  former  organ  is  the  more  common  seat 
Usually  only  one  or  two  cysts  are  present,  but  as  many 
as  thirty  in  one  brain  have  been  recorded.  The  tissue  around 
the  cyst  is  destroyed. 

When  the  bladders  are  large  and  superficially  situated, 
even  the  bones  of  the  skull  may  be  thinned  and  softened.  The 
carcases  are  often  very  much  emaciated.  The  emaciation 
may  be  particularly  evident  in  certain  regions  which  have 
undergone  atrophy  in  consequence  of  a  spinal  lesion.  The 
embryos  reach  their  habitat  by  way  of  the  blood  vessels,  and 


2  2  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

during  the  first  three  weeks  of  their  invasion  traces  of  their 
wanderings  in  the  brain  can  be  seen  in  the  form  of  red  or  grey 
streaks  (Fig.  54). 

The  embryos  certainly  enter  the  other  organs,  but  they 
have  only  in  one  or  two  isolated  cases  been  known  to  develop 
in  the  subcutaneous  tissue.  In  the  other  organs  their  develop- 
ment is  checked  at  a  very  early  stage,  and  the  parasites  de- 
generate. These  degenerated  forms  are  frequently  met  with 
in  the  tissues  of  lambs.  The  lesions  produced  by  them  are  in 
the  form  of  nodules,  varying  in  size  from  a  hemp-seed  to  a  nut. 
The  external  part,  which  is  fibrous,  encloses  a  caseous  material 
of  a  greenish-yellow  colour.  The  nodules  are  sometimes 
calcified.  Morot,  who  has  repeatedly  called  attention  to  these 


FIG.  54. — Brain  of  a  lamb  with  passages  of  Ccenurus.     Nat.  size. 

nodules,  has  lately  described  a  marked  case  of  general  infection. 
In  a  young  sheep  he  found  68  nodules  in  the  muscles  of  the 
abdomen  and  hind-quarters,  87  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the 
fore-quarters,  41  in  the  masseters,  2  in  the  muscles  of  the  eye, 
and  2  in  the  tongue.  Similar  nodules  were  present  in  the 
heart,  the  diaphragm,  the  kidneys,  the  pleura,  and  the  peri- 
toneum. In  the  brain  there  were  several  degenerated  nodules, 
but  also  five  small  bladders  containing  a  clear  fluid.  Railliet, 
to  whom  the  tissues  were  sent,  regarded  the  cysts  as  those  of 
coenuri. 

Some  difficulty  might  arise  in  distinguishing  between 
young  coenuri  in  the  brain  and  the  measles  parasites.  Scolices 
would  be  present  in  the  latter,  however,  when  the  bladders 
had  reached  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed,  whereas  they  only  begin  to 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     223 

appear  in  the  cysts  of  the  former  when  they  are  about  the 
size  of  a  hazel-nut. 

The  degenerated  cysts  in  muscle  might  easily  be  mistaken 
for  those  of  measles  in  the  same  condition.  The  fact  of  all  the 
nodules  being  caseous,  however,  would  point  strongly  to  the 
parasites  being  coenuri  ;  but  a  mistake  regarding  the  identity 
of  degenerated  parasites  would  be  of  no  consequence. 

Inspection.  —  The  parts  showing  lesions  and  the  emaciated 
carcases  are  the  only  ones  which  require  to  be  dealt  with. 

The  heads  should,  of  course,  be  destroyed  if  coenuri  be 
found  in  the  brain.  The  presence  of  degenerated  cysts  in  the 
tissues  should  make  one  suspect  sturdy. 

When  the  caseous  nodules  are  numerously  present  in  any 
part,  it  must  be  looked  upon  as  unmarketable. 

CCENURUS  SERIALIS 

This  is  the  cystic  form  of  the  T.  serialis  of  the  dog,  but  it 
is  not  a  common  parasite.  The  cysts  are  found  in  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues  of  wild  rabbits  and  hares.  They  vary  in  size 
from  a  pin-head  to  a  hen's  egg,  and  have  all  the  structural 
characters  of  the  coenuri. 

C.  B.  Kose,  who  described  these  parasites  in  1833,  said 
that  they  were  found  usually  between  the  muscles  of  the  loins, 
back,  and  neck.  He  also  said  that  warreners  puncture  the 
vesicles  and  squeeze  out  the  fluid  before  sending  the  affected 
animals  to  market. 


The  tienise  most  commonly  found  in  the  intestines  of  cattle 
and  sheep  in  this  country  are  the  T.  expansa  and  T.  denti- 
culata.  The  former  worm  is  best  known.  They  are  both 
unarmed.  The  T.  expansa  may  attain  a  great  length,  in  some 
cases  20  ft.  or  more.  The  posterior  segments  are  nearly  an 
inch  in  breadth.  The  head,  which  shows  four  oval  suckers, 
is  continued  by  a  narrow  twine-like  portion.  'The  T.  denti- 


224  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

culata  is  shorter  than  the  preceding.  It  is  usually  about  1  ft. 
in  length,  but  it  may  be  much  longer.  The  head  is  made  up 
of  four  globular  suckers.  The  anterior  part  is  thicker  than 
that  of  the  expansa,  and  the  body  has  a  denticulated  appearance. 
Tape- worms  have  been  credited  with  giving  rise  to 
diarrhoea  and  anaemia  in  young  oxen  and  sheep.  It  seems 
more  likely,  however,  that  the  serious  and  sometimes  fatal 
effects  attributed  to  the  tseniae  are  really  caused  by  small 
nematodes,  such  as  the  Strongylus  cervicornis  described  by 
M'Fadyean  in  this  country,  and  also  found  in  calves  by 
Gilruth  in  New  Zealand.  The  intestinal  parasites  may  give 
rise  to  severe  gastro-enteritis,  and  be  the  cause  of  such  marked 
emaciation  and  cachexia,  that  the  carcases  of  the  animals  are 
rendered  unfit  for  the  market. 


TREMATODES 

The  only  trematodes  which  are  of  much  importance  to  the 
inspector  in  this  country,  are  those  known  popularly  as  nukes. 

DISTOMATOSIS  (Eot;  Fluke  Disease) 

These  terms  are  applied  to  the  diseased  condition  caused  by 
distomata  or  flukes. 

Animals  affected.  — All  the  domesticated  animals  may  be 
invaded  by  flukes.  Fluke  disease,  however,  is  only  seen  to 
any  extent  in  sheep  and  cattle.  The  other  animals  are  much 
less  exposed  to  infection.  A  considerable  number  of  cases 
have  been  recorded  in  human  beings.  In  Scotland  the  disease 
is  widely  prevalent  both  in  sheep  and  cattle.  A  large  number 
of  sheep  carcases  have  to  be  condemned  annually  at  the 
Edinburgh  abattoir  on  account  of  this  disease.  It  is  most 
prevalent  from  December  to  March.  The  affection  is  rarely 
met  with  in  pigs. 

The  parasites.— The  two  best-known  flukes  are  the  Distomum 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     225 

hepaticum  and  D.  lanceolatum.  The  former  is  by  far  the  most 
frequent  in  Scotland  ;  one  hardly  ever  meets  with  the  lanceo- 
latum. 

The  D.  hepaticum  is  like  a  miniature  flat-fish  (Fig.  55).  It 
measures  from  1  -8  to  3  cm.  in  length,  and  from  6  to  10  mm. 
in  breadth.  Its  cuticle  is  of  a  brownish  colour,  being  much 
lighter  towards  the  centre  than  at  the  margins.  It  is  studded 
with  delicate  bristles.  An  oral  sucker,  which  communicates 
with  a  double  alimentary  canal,  is  situated  at  the  anterior  part 
of  the  head.  The  alimentary  tubes  show  many  lateral  branches. 
A  short  distance  behind  the  mouth  on  the  ventral  surface 


Fio.  55.—Di3tomum  hepaticum.     Nat.  size.—  LEUCK ART. 

there  is  another  pore.  The  parasite  is  hermaphrodite,  and  the 
male  and  female  genital  organs  are  placed  just  in  front  of  the 
ventral  opening.  The  eggs  are  of  a  brownish  colour,  and 
measure  about  130  //,  x  70  //,. 

In  most  cases  the  parasites  are  found  only  in  the  bile  ducts, 
where  many  of  them  lay  their  eggs,  or  they  may  have  passed 
to  the  intestines  by  way  of  the  bile  duct.  They  are  occasionally 
met  with,  however',  in  other  organs. 

The  lanceolatum  is  longer  and  narrower  than  the  hepaticum. 
It  measures  from  4  to  9  cm.  x  2  •  5  mm.  It  is  lance-shaped, 
and  the  body  is  devoid  of  bristles.  The  alimentary  tubes  are 
unbranched. 

Lesions.— The  bile  ducts  are  the   natural   habitat  of  the 


2  2  6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

flukes,  and  the  chief  anatomical  changes  are  found  in  the  liver, 
Isolated  parasites,  however,  have  been  found  in  other  organs, 
which  they  probably  reach  by  way  of  the  blood  stream.  They 
enter  the  vessels  at  a  less  mature  and  smaller  stage  of  their 
parasitism.  The  Editor  has  many  times  observed  them  in  the 
lungs  of  oxen. 

Morot  found  101  cases  of  pulmonary  distomatosis  in 
2458  oxen  (4  per  cent.).  Lung  lesions  have  also  been  met 
with  in  sheep  by  Burke  and  Littlewood,  and  in  the  pig  by 
Buser. 

Morot  has  recorded  one  observation  of  D.  hcpaticum  in  the 
intercostal  muscles  of  an  ox.  He  has  also  found  the  parasites 
encysted  under  the  serous  membranes  of  the  same  species. 

Friedberger  and  Frohner  say  that  flukes  are  sometimes 
found  free  in  the  serous  cavities. 

Cocu  has  found  a  fluke  in  the  right  ventricle  of  a  cow. 
Morot,  Blanchard,  and  others  have  seen  them  located  in  the 
parenchyma  of  the  liver.  Lucet  has  seen  the  hepatic  distoma 
in  the  spleen.  They  have  also  been  met  with  in.  the  portal 
vein  and  other  vessels.  The  lanceolatum,  does  not  give  rise  to 
such  marked  lesions  as  the  hepaticum.  In  China  and  Japan 
flukes  are  often  found  in  the  ducts  of  the  pancreas  in  the  ox  and 
buffalo  (Gomy).  The  pancreatic  fluke,  however,  is  a  different 
species— Dicrocollium  pancreaticum. 

Liver.— The  D.  hepaticum  gives  rise  to  cirrhosis  of  the  liver. 
It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  in  this  country  at  least,  the 
vast  majority  of  cases  of  hepatic  cirrhosis  in  animals  is  due  to 
this  parasite. 

In  the  ox  the  organ  is  much  enlarged.  Its  borders  are 
rounded,  and  its  surface  is  usually  regular.  Its  consistence 
is  much  firmer  than  normal,  and  its  colour  is  often  yellowish 
from  infiltration  by  fat.  If  the  organ  be  cut,  a  jerky  sensation 
is  conveyed  to  the  hand  through  the  knife.  Frequently  a  grating 
noise  is  produced  as  the  knife  passes  through  the  calcified 
ducts. 

(Small  areas,  usually  linear,  of  white  fibrous  tissue  are  seen 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    227 

on  the  surface  of  section.  The  walls  of  the  bile  ducts  are  much 
thickened ;  sometimes  they  are  calcined.  The  ducts  contain 
inspissated  bile  and  mucus,  which  varies  in  colour  from  reddish 
yellow  to  very  dark  brown.  Parasites  are  generally  found  in 
the  ducts  along  with  calcareous  scales,  but  it  is  sometimes  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  single  fluke.  In  the  ox  lesion  the  formation  of 
cavernous  blood  spaces  is  almost  invariably  observed.  These 


FIG.  56.— Cirrhosis  of  liver,  showing  new  tissue  and  bile  capillaries. 

appear  as  dark  purple  areas  under  the  capsule  and  in  the 
substance  of  the  liver.  They  are  never  found  in  the  cirrhotic 
livers  of  sheep. 

In  the  early  stages  the  microscope  reveals  the  presence  of 
many  fibroblastic  cells  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  ducts. 
Later,  these  cells  are  transformed  into  fibrous  tissue  which 
extends  into  the  lobules  and  destroys  the  liver  cells.  In  the 
fibrous  tissue  many  new  bile  capillaries  are  seen  (Fig.  56).  In 


228  MEAT  INSPECTION 

some  cases  the  remaining  liver  cells  are  infiltrated  by  fat 
globules. 

The  cavernous  spaces  look  like  distended  vessels  filled  with 
blood.  They  consist  of  areas  of  dilated  capillaries  which  are 
separated  from  each  other  by  rows  of  liver  cells  (Fig.  57). 

In  sheep  the  enlargement  of  the  organ  is  generally  in  the 
antero-posterior  direction.  On  the  posterior  surface  the  large 


FIG.  57. — Microscopical  section  of  the  liver  of  an  ox,  sliowing 
cavernous  spaces. 

ducts  stand  out  prominently  as  white  tubes,  and  usually  con- 
tain large  numbers  of  parasites. 

Cirrhosis  of  the  liver  not  traceable  to  the  fluke  is  some- 
times seen.  These  cases  are  supposed  to  be  due  to  some 
error  in  diet.  In  Prussia,  for  example,  a  cirrhosis  accompanied 
by  fatty  degeneration  is  often  met  with  in  sheep  and  cattle 
fed  on  yelknv  lupins.  The  disease  has  been  called  Lupinosis. 
It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  may 
occur  in  animals  suffering  from  certain  chronic  bacterial 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    229 


diseases.  In  this  country  a  form  of  fine  cirrhosis  is  sometimes 
seen  in  the  livers  of  oxen.  The  organ  is  enlarged  and  of  a 
dark  chocolate  colour.  On  section  the  graining  is  fine,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  make  out  the  new  tissue  with  the  naked  eye. 

The  iriterlobular  form  of  cirrhosis,  in  which  the  new  tissue 
is  formed  regularly  between  the  lobules,  is  seldom  seen  in  sheep 
and  cattle.      It  is,  however,  sometimes  met  with  in  the  pig. 
It  is  almost  needless  to  warn  the 
inspector    against    mistaking     the 
naturally   well  -  marked    lobulation 
of  the  pig's  liver  for  cirrhosis. 

As  a  general  rule  the  carcases 
of  young  oxen  which  have  suffered 
from  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  are  not 
emaciated.  Sheep,  however,  are 
often  reduced  to  skin  and  bone, 
as  the  saying  is.  The  flesh  of 
these  emaciated  animals  is  anaemic- 
looking,  flabby,  and  watery.  Fre- 
quently other  parasites  are  dis- 
covered in  their  intestines. 

Lung.  —  In  the  lung  .  the  para- 
site becomes  encysted.  A  hollow 
tumour  with  fibrous  walls  is 
formed.  The  tumour  can  be  seen 
on  the  surface  of  the  lung,  or  felt 
in  its  substance.  It  is  exceptional 
to  find  more  than  two  present  in 
the  one  animal.  The  tumour  is 
about  the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  greyish  in  colour,  and  the 
wall  is  often  calcified.  The  cavity  contains  a  dark-brownish 
fluid  of  syrupy  consistence.  It  probably  consists  largely  of 
material  excreted  by  the  parasite.  There  is  seldom  more 
than  one  fluke  in  each  cyst,  but  even  that  may  have  under- 
gone degeneration,  and  disappeared. 

Serous  membranes  and  muscle.— The  parasites  may  give 


FIG.    58.  — -r  Larval    distoma    in 
muscle  of  pig. — LEUCKART, 

NEUMANN. 


2  30  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

rise  to  small  nodules  immediately  beneath  the  pleura  and 
peritoneum,  or  in  the  deeper  lying  muscular  tissue.  The 
nodules  are  about  the  size  of  a  haricot-bean.  In  the  case 
of  a  cow  observed  by  Morot,  seventy -five  nodules  were 
present. 

Dunker  and  Leuckart  have  described  immature  tre- 
matodes  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  diaphragm  and 
pharynx  of  the  pig.  They  were  contained  in  fibrous 
tissue  capsules  of  an  oval  shape,  and  almost  the  size  of  a 
trichinous  cyst  (Fig.  58).  The  parasites  were  about  half  a 
millimetre  in  length,  and  they  were  motile  when  heated  to 
the  body  temperature. 

Inspection.  —  After  the  eggs  of  the  fluke  have  been  excreted 
from  the  bodies  of  animals,  the  embryos  are  hatched.  The 
latter,  however,  must  pass  through  several  intermediary  stages 
of  existence  in  other  hosts  before  they  can  infect  animals  or 
human  beings  with  flukes.  The  disease,  then,  is  not  directly 
transmissible,  but  the  affected  organs,  especially  the  liver, 
should  be  seized.  Cirrhotic  or  fibrous  livers  are  in  all  cases 
unfit  for  human  food.  Nevertheless,  fluke  livers  can  some- 
times be  found  in  butchers'  shops.  The  carcase  can  be  passed, 
unless  the  flesh  be  oedematous  or  too  emaciated  for  the  market. 


BlLHARZIA   BOVIS 

The  Bilharzia  is  the  name  given  to  a  species  of  trematode 
which  was  first  found  in  the  portal  vein  of  a  man  in  Egypt 
by  Bilharz.  The  B.  bovis,  a  similar  parasite,  was  first  dis- 
covered in  the  portal  vein  of  a  bull  in  Egypt  by  Sonsino. 
It  has  since  been  frequently  observed  in  oxen  and  sheep  in 
Eastern  countries.  It  has  been  met  with  in  Egypt,  South 
Africa,  and  in  India. 

The  sexes  are  distinct.  The  male  Bilharzia  of  man 
measures  from  11  to  14  mm.  x  1  mm.  The  body  is  flat,  of  a 
grey  colour,  and  dotted  with  papillae.  Like  other  trematodes, 
it  possesses  an  oral  and  a  ventral  pore.  The  male  carries 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     231 

the  female  111  an  elongated  pouch  (canalis  gyncecophorus), 
The  female  is  thread  like,  and  measures  from  15  to  20  mm.  in 
length  (Fig.  59). 

The  Bilharzia  of  animals  does  not  differ  materially  in 
appearance  from  that  of  man,  except  that  it  is  slightly  larger. 

The  eggs  of  the  B.  bows  are  spindle-shaped,  and  much  drawn 
out  at  the  extremities,  one  of  which  carries  a  pear-shaped  body. 
They  measure  about  160  //,x40  /JL. 


FIG.  59. — Distomum  liamiatobinm,  male  and  female,  the  latter 
in  the  canalis  gynsecophorus  of  the  former. — NEUMANN. 

The  parasites  are  found  in  the  veins,  especially  in  those  of 
the  portal  system.  The  eggs  of  the  female  are  carried  by  the 
blood  stream  into  the  different  organs,  particularly  the  bladder 
and  intestines. 

Lesions.— The  eggs  are  arrested  in  the  capillaries.  They 
may  cause  rupture  with  haemorrhage,  or  they  may  give  rise 
to  the  formation  of  small  pin-head  nodules.  The  latter  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  large  intestines  and  in  the  bladder.  They 
contain  eggs. 


2  3  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 


Inspection.— The  researches  of  Harley  and  Soiisino  show, 
at  least,  that  animals  cannot  be  infected  "directly  by  means  of 
the  eggs.  Human  beings,  accordingly,  incur  no  danger  from 
the  flesh  of  animals  harbouring  these  parasites. 

AMPHISTOMA  CONICUM  (Zeder) 

More  than  one  Amphistoma  has  been  found  as  a  parasite  in 
domesticated  and  wild  animals. 

The  A.  conicum  is  a  parasite  of  the  rumen  and  reticulum 


FIG.  60. — Portion  of  rumen  of  ox  containing 
the  Amphistoma  conicum. — NEUMANN. 

of  oxen  and  sheep.  It  is  met  with  in  Egypt,  Australia,  and 
India.  Cobbold  has  given  the  name  A.  tubercul atum  to  a 
parasite  found  in  the  intestines  of  the  ox  in  India. 

The  A.  conicum  is  yellowish  in  colour,  with  a  rosy  tint  in 
certain  parts.  It  is  ovoid,  the  narrow  end  being  in  front.  It 
possesses  a  frontal  pore,  and  it  measures  from  10  to  13  mm.  x 
from  2  to  3  mm.  at  the  broadest  part. 

These  parasites  are  of  little  interest  to  the  Meat  Inspector. 


NEMATODES 

The  Nematodes  are  round  worms.     Many  members  of  the 
order  live  as  parasites  in  the  bodies  of  animals.     It  is  not 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    233 

necessary,  however,  in  a  book  on  "  Meat  Inspection,"  to 
enter  into  a  description  of  every  individual  species.  Only 
those  which  are  of  interest  to  the  Meat  Inspector  need  be  dealt 
with  here. 

Gastro-intestinal  nematodes,  such  as  the  Strongylus  con- 
to  rtus,  S.  cervicornis  (M'Fadyean),  and  several  others,  may 
be  the  cause  of  diarrhoea,  anaemia,  and  emaciation  in  cattle 
and  sheep.  The  lesions  in  the  stomach  and  intestines,  how- 
ever, are  of  small  importance.  They  seldom  consist  of  more 
than  local  congestion,  and  would  in  the  majority  of  cases  be 
passed  over  were  it  not  for  an  emaciated  and  watery  condition 
of  the  flesh,  which  may  render  it  unmarketable.  A  few  cases 
of  perforation  or  rupture  of  the  bowel  caused  by  ascarides 
have  been  recorded.  Accidents  of  this  kind  will,  of  course,  be 
followed  by  peritonitis. 

TRICHINOSIS 

Trichinosis  is  a  parasitic  disease  of  man  and  animals  caused 
by  the  Trichina  spiralis.  One  speaks  of  a  muscular  and  an 
intestinal  form,  but  it  is  usually  the  former  that  is  understood 
by  the  term  trichinosis,  or  trichiiiiasis  as  it  is  sometimes  written. 

Animals  affected.— Although  the  degree  of  susceptibility 
varies  widely,  almost  all  animals,  with  the  exception  of  the 
cold-blooded  species  and  birds,  can  be  experimentally  infected 
with  muscular  trichinosis.  Positive  results,  however,  have 
been  obtained  in  cold-blooded  animals  by  keeping  them  at  a 
temperature  of  30°  C.  (Goujon).  In  birds  the  intestinal  form 
only  can  be  produced.  Rats  are  easily  infected  experimentally, 
and  in  trichinosis  districts  they  are  often  trichinous.  Only  the 
carnivorous  animals  contract  the  disease  naturally,  as  one 
might  expect,  from  the  fact  that  infection  takes  place  in  the 
vast  majority  of  cases  by  ingestion  of  diseased  flesh.  It  is  with 
the  pig  only  that  the  Meat  Inspector  need  concern  himself. 

The  pigs  of  this  country  are  wonderfully  free  from  the  dis- 
ease, if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  rarity  of  cases  in  the  large 


234  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

number  of  human  beings  who  make  pork  a  part  of  their  diet. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  their  immunity  depends  to  some 
extent  on  the  prejudice  in  favour  of  eating  pig  flesh  after  it  has 
been  well  cooked.  So  far  as  the  Editor  is  aware,  the  only  parts 
likely  to  be  eaten  half-cooked  are  the  pork  fillets,  and  those 
portions  which  are  made  into  sausages. 

A  large  amount  of  fresh  and  cured  foreign  pork  is,  however, 
imported  into  this  country  from  places  where  the  disease  is 
known  to  exist.  The  Board  of  Agriculture  returns  show  that 
in  1897  we  received  from  abroad  347,617  cwts.  of  fresh  pork, 
and  6,967,996  cwts.  that  had  been  salted  or  cured. 

The  fresh  pork  certainly  calls  for  a  more  satisfactory  method 
of  inspection  than  that  at  present  in  vogue,  for  by  no  stretch  of 
the  imagination  could  the  examination  be  called  adequate. 

In  some  parts  of  America  trichinosis  seems  to  be  pretty 
common  in  the  pig,  if  we  judge  from  the  results  obtained  in 
France  and  Germany  by  examining  imported  hams  and  other 
forms  of  cured  pork.  This  statement,  however,  is  not  intended 
to  convey  the  idea  that  these  cured  products  are  likely  to  cause 
trichinosis  in  human  beings.  The  facts  brought  to  light  by 
investigation  are  against  such  a  conclusion ;  but  this  will  be 
discussed  more  fully  in  the  paragraph  devoted  to  Inspection. 

The  examinations  made  in  France  and  Germany  showed 
that  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  pork  imported  from  America 
was  trichinous.  Chatin  (p.  216,  "  Prophylaxis ")  states  that 
out  of  3444  cases  of  American  pig  products— hams,  sausages, 
etc.,  examined  at  Havre  in  1881,  the  number  of  cases 
containing  trichinous  flesh  amounted  to  14  •  66  per  cent. ;  the 
proportion  of  pieces  affected  was  to  2-3  per  cent.  Later 
statistics  from  Germany  by  Zurn  (quoted  by  Ostertag)  show 
that  in  1891  the  proportion  of  trichinous  pork  imported  from 
America  into  certain  towns,  varied  from  1  to  8  per  cent. 
Official  reports  from  America  stated  that  2  •  7  per  cent,  of  the 
pigs  examined  were  found  trichinous  in  1884. 

The  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  for 
1898  states  that  out  of  1,892,131  hog  carcases,  of  which  parts 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    235 

were  submitted  to  microscopical  examination,  -816  per  cent. 
showed  degenerated  trichinous  cysts,  but  no  recognisable 
trichincc.  The  number  which  showed  recognisable  tricJiincc 
amounted  to  1-036  per  cent.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  the 
percentage  of  American  pigs  which  at  some  time  of  their  lives 
harbour  living  trichince  is  1  •  852.1 

In  French  pigs  it  is  said  that  the  disease  has  never  been 
observed,  although  in  some  parts  a  large  proportion  of  the  rats 
are  trichinous. 

'In  German  pigs  the  disease  is  not  unknown,  but,  according 
to  Ostertag,  it  is  becoming  less  frequent.  In  Prussia,  in  1896,  the 
proportion  of  trichinosis  found  in  slaughtered  swine  was  -021 
per  cent.,  against  -043  per  cent,  in  1892.  In  Saxony  it  was 
•102  in  1896.  In  Berlin,  from  1893-97,  the  proportion  was 
from  -022  per  cent,  to  -028  per  cent. 

Small  as  these  proportions  may  appear  at  first  sight,  the 
actual  number  of  animals  found  diseased  is  by  110  means  neglig- 
ible ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  many  thousands  of  pigs' 
carcases  were  submitted  to  examination,  and  that  one  diseased 
animal  may  be  the  cause  of  trichinosis  in  a  large  number  of 
human  beings.  The  existence  of  trichinosis  in  German  pigs,  and 
the  national  partiality  for  raw  or  half -cooked  swine  flesh,  cost 
Germany  a  large  sum  of  money  annually  for  meat  inspection. 

The  disease  has  been  met  with  in  Sweden,  Denmark, 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  Kussia.  There  is  hardly  a  country  in  the 
world  in  which  it  has  not  at  least  been  seen,  although  records 
of  its  frequency  are  in  most  cases  wanting.  In  Great  Britain 
we  know  nothing  about  its  occurrence  in  home  pigs  ;  the  disease 
has  only  been  looked  for  on  the  few  occasions  when  human 
beings  have  been  so  severely  infested  that  marked  clinical 
symptoms  followed.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  the 

1  Section  20  of  the  Regulations,  dated  14th  June  1895,  orders  all  carcases 
showing  recognisable  trichinae  to  he  destroyed.  The  report  further  states  that 
in  1897  the  amount  of  examined  pork  exported  to  countries  not  requiring 
a  certificate  of  microscopic  examination  was  161,303  Ibs. 

As  Great  Britain  alone  imported  6,855,856  Ibs.  of  fresh  pork  from  America, 
a  great  deal  of  it  can  never  have  been  examined. 


2  36  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Cumberland  outbreak  of  1871  in  human  beings  was  caused 
by  the  flesh  of  a  pig  which  had  been  bred  and  fed  at  home. 
Moreover,  trichiiise  have  frequently  been  found  in  the  muscles 
of  human  corpses  in  our  medical  dissecting-rooms.  It  was 
owing  to  observations  made  in  the  dissecting-room  of  St. 
Bartholomew^  Hospital  in  1834,  that  Paget  discovered  the 
worm  which  was  afterwards  described  and  named  by  Owen. 

TJw  parasite. —The  parasite  belongs  to  the  family  of  Tricho- 
trachelidoe.  It  occurs  in  the  same  forms  in  men  and  in  animals. 
The  adult  worms  are  found  in  the  intestines  only  (intestinal 
trichinosis),  but  they  give  birth  to  embryos  which  penetrate  to 
the  muscles  and  organs.  The  females  are  more  numerously 
present  than  the  males.  The  latter  measure  from  1  •  4  to  1  •  6  mm. 
x  40  //,.  The  worm  is  attenuated  towards  the  cephalic  extremity. 
It  possesses  an  intestinal  tube  which  ends  at  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity in  a  cloaca.  In  the  male  the  testicular  tube  opens  into 
the  cloaca,  which  is  bounded  by  two  small  prolongations  (digiti- 
form  appendages).  The  females  measure  3  to  4  mm.  x  CO  //,, 
and  the  appendages  are  absent.  The  female  genital  organs 
consist  of  an  alternately  dilated  and  constricted  tube,  which 
ends  in  a  vulva  towards  the  anterior  extremity.  The  eggs  are 
hatched  inside  the  female,  whose  posterior  portion  is  simply 
crammed  with  them.  The  part  anterior  to  the  uterus  con- 
tains embryos.  It  has  been  reckoned  that  one  female  may 
give  birth  to  as  many  as  15,000  young  trichinae.  The  latter 
at  first  measure  about  100  /A  x  6  at  their  broadest  part.  These 
embryo  may  be  found  in  the  host's  intestines,  if  the  contents 
be  examined  under  a  magnifying  power  of  about  200.  They 
migrate  to  various  parts  of  the  body.  In  the  tissues  they 
may  reach  the  length  of  1  mm. ;  but  the  genital  organs 
remain  rudimentary  until  these  larval  forms  are  taken  into  the 
intestines  of  another  host  (Fig.  61). 

Infection  of  animals  and  human  beings.  —When  flesh  contain- 
ing living  larval  trichinae  is  swallowed  by  a  susceptible  animal, 
the  parasites  are  freed  from  their  tissue  connections  by  the  gastric 
juice.  They  complete  their  development  in  the  intestines ;  the 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     237 

sexes  copulate,  and  the  females  give  birth  to  a  brood  of  embryos 
about  the  sixth  or  seventh  dav  after  the  flesh  has  been  eaten. 


FIG.  61. — Trichina  spiralis.  ^.Embryo;  B. 
Intermediate  form  ;  0.  Sexual  form  (unim- 
pregnated  female). — LEUCKART.  c- 

It  is  this  second  generation  of  embryos  that  gives  rise  to  the 
intestinal  symptoms,  and  migrates  afterwards  to  other  parts 
of  the  body.  The  latter  they  reach  either  by  boring  directly 


238  MEAT  INSPECTION 

through  the  tissues,  or  by  means  of  the  blood  and  lymph  streams 
after  they  have  penetrated  into  the  vessels.  The  embryos  have 
been  found  in  the  blood  stream  by  Zenker  and  others.  The 
migrations  last  for  about  eight  days,  starting  from  the  time  the 
embryos  are  born.  Human  beings  are  infested  by  eating  the  flesh 
of  affected  swine.  Swine  get  the  disease  by  eating  trichinous 
rats  and  mice,  or  the  flesh  of  their  own  kind.  It  is  also  possible 
that  the  pig  may  become  trichinosed  by  swallowing  food  con- 
taining pregnant  female  trichinae  or  embryos  which  have  been 
recently  excreted  from  the  intestines  of  other  animals. 

The  number  of  parasites  necessary  to  produce  trichinosis 
with  distinct  clinical  symptoms  is  a  debatable  question  ;  it  is 
certainly  large.  There  is  nothing  to  show,  however,  that  a 
small  number  of  embryos  are  destroyed  by  the  digestive  juices, 
and  thus  prevented  from  gaining  their  natural  habitat.  The 
records  from  the  dissecting-rooms  are  against  this  conclusion.. 
The  truth  seems  to  be  that  in  human  beings  the  mild  and 
isolated  cases  are  diagnosed  only  at  a  time  when  the  individual 
is  beyond  telling  whether  he  ever  experienced  any  of  the  char- 
acteristic symptoms.  The  probability  is  that  he  did,  for  the 
proof  is  there  that  the  parasites  have  penetrated  his  flesh. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  whereas  the  first  cases  with  in- 
disputable clinical  symptoms  were  diagnosed  in  this  country 
in  1871,  post-mortem  proof  of  the  disease  had  forty  years  before 
been  many  times  obtained.  This  inclines  one  to  ask :  Is  trich- 
inosis so  uncommon  as  we  think  ;  and  are  some  of  the  cases 
of  so-called  muscular  rheumatism  in  human  beings  not  caused 
by  the  presence  of  a  few  trichinae  ?  These  are  questions  to  be 
answered  by  the  physician.  If  there  be  found  reasonable 
grounds  for  replying  in  the  affirmative,  the  public  have  a 
right  to  be  protected  from  this  bodily  inconvenience,  as  far  as 
it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

Each  female  swallowed  may  give  birth  to  at  least  1000 
embryos.  Cobbold  calculated  that  there  were  85,000  embryos 
present  in  one  ounce  of  flesh  from  the  Cumberland  pig;  but 
of  course  the  number  is  not  so  large  in  all  cases— it  may  be 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     239 

relatively  quite  small.  On  the  assumption  that  half  the 
number  in  the  above  case  would  develop  into  females  capable  of 
producing  1000  young,  Cobbold  estimated  that  three  ounces 
of  the  underdone  flesh  would  infest  a  human  being  with 
about  100,000,000  mucular  trichinae.  This,  he  adds,  would 
render  the  host  very  ill ;  but  recovery  would  be  possible.  The 
above  numbers  are,  of  course,  only  to  be  accepted  as  com- 
putations. 

Lesions.— The  presence  in  the  intestines  of  a  large  number 
of  embryos  gives  rise  to  signs  of  severe  irritation.  At  this  stage 
the  flesh,  although  not  dangerous,  may  show  the  alterations 
due  to  fever.  The  regions  most  frequently  invaded  by  the 
embryos  are  the  muscular  parts  of  the  diaphragm,  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder,  loins,  larynx,  thigh,  neck,  tongue,  cheeks,  and 
intercostal  muscles.  The  larvae  are  often  most  numerously 
found  at  the  points  of  insertion  of  tendons ;  the  bony 
structures  are  said  to  arrest  their  further  progress.  Chatiii 
states  that  the  fat  is  often  invaded  by  the  larvae,  and  that 
they  are  not  infrequently  found  in  the  intestinal  wall. 

In  the  muscles  the  parasites  are  for  the  most  part  located 
in  the  intermuscular  tissue ;  very  occasionally  do  they,  accord- 
ing to  Chatin,  invade  the  sarcolemma.  At  first  they  excite 
a  proliferation  in  the  tissues,  and  the  parasites  become  sur- 
rounded by  fibroblasts,  which  eventually  form  into  fibrous  cysts 
around  them.  These  cysts  measure  about  •  4  mm.  x  •  25  mm. 
Little  can  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  until  calcification  of  the 
cysts  has  taken  place.  Then  they  appear  as  small  white  specks, 
which  are  easily  made  out.  Calcification,  however,  does  not 
begin  until  several  months  have  passed,  so  that  one  must  depend 
entirely  on  the  chance  of  a  microscopic  examination  revealing 
the  parasites  during  the  earlier  stages.  With  the  microscope 
one  can  see  at  first  a  round  cell  infiltration  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  parasites.  A  little  later,  granules,  which  give  the 
reaction  of  glycogen,  can  also  be  made  out.  The  fibroblastic 
cells  form  into  connective  tissue  which  encapsules  the  larvae. 
These  cysts  may  be  lemon-shaped  or  spherical.  Usually  each 


240 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


contains  only  one  parasite,  but  as  many  as  seven  have  been 
found  in  one  cyst— Kystes  polytrichines  (Chatin).  The  worms 
are  coiled  up  in  the  cysts,  sometimes  in  S  form,  sometimes  in 
figure  of  eight  (Fig.  62).  The  muscle  fibres  around  the  cyst 
are  atrophied ;  they  may  also  show  hyaline  and  fatty  changes. 
Sometimes  they  are  infiltrated  with  lime  salts.  Adipose 
deposits  are  frequently  present  in  the  inter  muscular  tissue 
near  the  cyst.  The  cysts  may  undergo  degenerative  changes. 


FIG.  62. — Trichinosed  pork,      x  45. — LEUCKAIIT. 

Even  before  the  formation  has  assumed  a  definite  structure, 
further  development  of  the  parasite  may  be  checked  ;  the  region 
becomes  infiltrated  with  brownish-yellow  granules— pigmentary 
degeneration— which  appear  as  specks  in  the  tissue.  When 
fully  formed  the  cyst  may  undergo  fatty  degeneration,  and 
eventually  become  calcified.  These  changes,  however,  are 
seldom  seen  until  many  months  have  passed. 

The   parasite   may,  on   the  other   hand,   die   and    become 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     241 

calcified  soon  after  it  has  reached  its  habitat.  At  first  it 
appears  as  a  petrified  image  of  the  original,  but  later  all  trace 
of  its  shape  is  lost,  and  only  a  calcareous  nodule  marks  the  seat 
of  its  former  existence. 

In  adipose  tissue  the  further  development  of  the  parasites 
is  often  arrested,  and  a  capsule  is  seldom  formed  around  those 
which  manage  to  exist. 

In  examining  muscle  for  trichinae,  a  magnification  of  10 
diameters  is  sufficient.  Moreover,  a  low  power  is  convenient, 
as  it  enables  a  large  field  to  be  examined.  Small  strands  of 
muscle  are  cut  in  a  longitudinal  direction  from  the  parts  most 
frequently  affected.  These  are  laid  out  between  wet  slides  or 
between  the  plates  of  a  compressing  apparatus  like  that  de- 
scribed 011  page  34.  The  preparation  is  pressed  until  it  is  thin 
enough  to  let  the  light  pass  freely  through  it.  Then  it  may  be 
examined  under  the  microscope.  The  muscle  may  also  be  teased 
out  in  water  and  examined  on  the  plate  of  a  dissecting  microscope. 
If  it  be  found  necessary  to  decalcify  the  preparation  before 
examination,  one  of  the  quicker  acting  fluids  will  be  found  most 
useful.  Fatty  tissue  containing  parasites  may  be  fixed  on  an 
albuminised  slide  by  heat,  and  when  the  water  has  been  driven 
off  the  slide  can  be  rinsed  in  turpentine  to  dissolve  out  the  fat. 

The  parasites  can  be  easily  observed  without  resorting  to 
methods  of  staining,  but  staining  with  ordinary  reagents  is 
sometimes  useful  in  revealing  the  fact  that  the  parasite  is 
dead  and  undergoing  degeneration.  In  the  latter  case  they 
stain  diffusely,  whereas  the  living  ones  do  not.  The  parasites 
are  not. always  to  be  considered  alive,  however,  because  they 
do  not  stain.  When  killed  by  salt  they  retain  their  outward 
form,  and  the  stains  pick  out  certain  parts  only  ;  these  correspond 
to  preparations  of  tissues  which  have  been  fixed.  A  more 
certain  method  of  determining  wrhether  the  larvae  are  alive  or 
not  is  that  resorted  to  by  Colin.  A  small  bird— a  sparrow,  for 
example— is  fed  with  the  trichinous  flesh.  Eight  hours  after- 
wards the  bird  is  killed,  and  its  intestinal  contents  are  examined 
under  the  microscope.  The  larvae,  if  alive,  will  be  found  moving 
16 


2  4  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

about  in  the  fluid.  The  movements  are  accelerated  by  gently 
heating  the  slide  to  104°.  When  dead  larvae  have  been  swallowed 
they  are  found  in  a  half -digested  condition. 

Other  degenerated  and  calcified  parasites  in  muscle  might 
be  confused  with  trichinae.  Such  an  error,  however,  is  only 
likely  to  be  made  in  the  case  of  calcified  lesions,  when  the  form 
of  the  parasites  in  question  is  practically  lost.  The  consequences 
of  a  mistake  of  this  kind  would  not  be  important,  because  the 
calcined  parasites  are  dead.  Encysted  larvae  of  distomata  have 
several  times  been  found  in  the  muscles  of  swine  (Fig.  58).  It 
has  also  been  stated  in  another  part  of  this  book  that  muscular 
actinomycosis  is  not  unknown.  Concretions  of  lime  and 
crystals  of  tyrosin,  of  which  the  significance  is  unknown,  are 
frequently  found  in  the  muscles  of  pigs.  The  tubes  of  llainey 
(see  " Psorospermosis  of  muscle")  are  often  present  alone  or 
along  with  trichinae  in  pigs'  muscles ;  but  the  former  are  not 
encapsuled,  and  their  appearance  is  very  different. 

Inspection.—  Flesh  containing  living  larval  trichinae,  110 
matter  what  be  the  degree  of  infestation,  should  not  be  allowed 
into  the  market  in  the  fresh  state.  If  the  pigs  have  been  slaugh- 
tered during  the  intestinal  stage— a  contingency  unlikely  to 
arise— it  must  be  left  to  the  inspector  to  pronounce  on  the  market- 
able quality  of  the  flesh.  Flesh  containing  a  large  number  of 
calcified  trichinous  cysts,  even  if  it  be  satisfactorily  proved  that 
the  larvae  are  dead,  should  be  considered  unmarketable,  because 
one  may  reasonably  object  to  eat  flesh  with  numerous  chalky 
nodules  disseminated  through  it. 

The  larvae  are  destroyed  in  a  joint  that  has  been  thoroughly 
cooked ;  that  is  to  say,  when  the  flesh  has  assumed  a  greyish 
colour  in  its  deepest  layer.  In  such  a  condition  the  flesh  might 
be  sold,  did  custom  admit  of  it  in  this  country.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  mention  that  joints  are  often  served  at  our  tables 
in  a  half-done  condition.  Although  the  irate  husband  may 
order  away  the  offending  dish,  the  tears  of  the  wife  may  prevail, 
and  result  in  the  family  partaking  of  half-raw  pork.  Vallin 
experimenting  on  rabbits  with  trichinous  flesh,  which  had  been 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     243 

exposed  for  twenty  minutes  to  a  temperature  of  60°  C.,  found 
that  it  was  no  longer  harmful.  A  piece  of  flesh  weighing  6 
kilos.  (13  Ibs.)  required  four  hours'  boiling  to  get  the  above 
temperature  in  the  centre  ;  pieces  over  6  kilos,  in  weight  re- 
quired five  and  a  half  hours,  but  in  that  time  one-fourth  of  the 
original  weight  had  been  lost.  Colin's  results,  obtained  fifteen 
years  before,  were  practically  the  same.  Fjord  stated  the  time 
necessary  for  hygienic  cooking  to  be  less  than  this  —  about 
twenty  minutes  per  lb.  — if  the  meat  be  put  into  boiling  water. 
The  exact  time,  howrever,  is  not  of  much  practical  import- 
ance. The  cooking  temperature  kills  the  parasites,  and  if  there 
be  no  red  flesh  left  in  the  centre,  harm  will  not  result. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  domestic 
cook  is  far  from  being  infallible,  therefore  the  sale  of  trichinous 
pork  must  be  controlled. 

Pickling  and  smoking  are  sure  methods  of  destroying  the 
muscle  trichinae,  provided  the  process  be  carried  on  for  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  to  enable  the  reagent  to  penetrate  to  every 
part  of  the  flesh.  One  speaks  of  dry  and  wet  pickling,  but  in 
reality  there  is  only  one  method,  for  dry  salt  and  nitre  put  over 
flesh  absorbs  water  from  the  atmosphere,  and  penetrates  in 
saturated  solution. 

A  great  deal  of  discussion  arose  twenty  years  ago  regarding 
the  use  of  preserved  American  pork,  which  often  contains 
larval  trichinae. 

In  1881  the  importation  of  American  pork  into  France 
was  forbidden.  This  embargo  is  still  in  force,  although  the 
Academie  Royale  de  Medecine  in  the  seance  of  5th  February 
1884  voted  that  American  fully-cured  pork  was  not  dangerous. 
In  the  discussion  on  M.  Colin's  paper,  Proust  pointed  out  that 
the  dock  labourers  at  Havre  had  for  years  eaten  this  cured 
pork  in  the  raw  state,  yet  no  cases  of  trichinosis  had  been  heard 
of.  In  Great  Britain  we  have  obtained  the  bulk  of  our  pre- 
served pork  from  America  for  many  years.  In  1897  we  received 
from  the  United  States  141,428  cwts.  of  salt  pork,  3,592,635 
cwts.  of  bacon,  and  1,603,533  cwts.  of  hams,  but  no  cases  of 


244  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

trichinosis  sufficiently  severe,  at  least,  to  allow  of  diagnosis  during 
life  have  been  recorded.  We  do  not  submit  the  imported  flesh 
to  the  detailed  examination  which  it  undergoes  in  Germany, 
therefore  we  have  no  reason  to  conclude  that  the  material  sent 
here  is  freer  from  trichinae  than  that  imported  into  the  former 
country.  Colin,  in  his  paper  of  1884,  reported  the  results  of 
his  experiments  with  trichinous  flesh  which  had  been  embedded 
in  pickle  or  placed  in  brine— saturated  salt  solution.  After 
three  weeks  the  trichinae  at  the  depth  of  \\  in.  from  the  surface 
were  dead.  In  large  hams  the  parasites  might  be  alive  in  the 
deeper  parts  after  fifteen  days'  salting.  None  were  found  alive 
in  hams  salted  for  two  or  three  months.  Colin  concluded 
that  six  weeks'  salting  would  be  efficacious  in  the  majority  of 
cases.  On  the  other  hand,  Chatin  obtained  several  positive  results 
by  feeding  guinea-pigs  on  American  cured  pork.  Girard  and 
Pabst  have  seen  movements  occur  in  the  larvae  from  cured 
pork  after  warming  the  slide  to  42°  C.  The  latter  observations, 
however,  do  not  show  that  curing  does  not  kill  the  larvae,  but 
rather  that  the  process  is  sometimes  incompletely  carried  out. 
Along  with  these  positive  results  many  negative  ones  were 
obtained.  The  observation  of  Fourmeiit,  oft  quoted,  in  which 
trichinae  were  found  alive  in  pieces  of  flesh  which  had  been 
covered  with  salt  for  fifteen  months,  is  of  no  value,  for  the 
salting  was  performed  in  dr}^  air  in  a  sealed  tube. 

It  is  well  known  in  the  history  of  trichinosis  epidemics  that 
people  who  ate  fresh  trichinous  flesh  suffered  severely  from 
the  disease,  while  those  partaking  of  the  flesh  of  the  same 
animal  after  salting  were  affected  only  slightly,  or  not  at  all. 
The  evidence  up  to  date  is  certainly  not  in  favour  of  the 
wholesale  seizure  of  cured  pork  when  it  contains  trichinae. 

Improperly  salted  flesh  soon  goes  wrong,  and  is  there- 
fore the  less  likely  to  be  consumed  by  human  beings.  With 
sausages  the  conditions  are  different,  for  the  contained  pork 
is  seldom  properly  salted  throughout,  and  they  are  almost 
never  cooked  through  and  through.  The  Editor  is  of  opinion 
that  imported  sausages  should  be  subjected  to  a  severe  in- 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     245 

spection,  not  only    on  account  of  trichinosis,   but   for   other 
obvious  reasons. 

Should  trichinosis  be  found  in  fresh  pork,  one  could  not  in 
justice  deny  to  the  owner  the  right  to  sell  it,  after  it  has  been 
properly  cured,  seeing  that  we  accept  American  cured  flesh 
without  any  inspection. 


•   ,  ASCARIDES 

Different  varieties  of  ascaris  are  found  in  the  small  intestines 
of  calves  (A.  wtuli),  sheep  (A.  ovis),  and  pigs  (A.  suillce).  They 
are  cylindrical  worms,  measuring  from  4  to  10  in.  in  length. 
They  are  pointed  at  the  extremities,  and  the  body  has  usually 
the  thickness  of  a  quill.  The  integument  is  white  or  yellowish 
in  colour,  but  red  streaks  can  be  seen  underneath  this  outer 
covering.  Large  numbers  of  ascarides  may  be  present  in  an 
animal  without  giving  rise  to  any  serious  lesions.  They  are 
very  common  in  pigs,  and  they  usually  frequent  the  small 
intestine.  Yallisneiri  of  Padua,  so  long  ago  as  1712,  drew 
attention  to  a  peculiar  odour  given  off  from  the  flesh  of  calves 
which  had  harboured  large  numbers  of  ascarides  in  their 
intestines.  Morot  has  recently  observed  the  same  kind  of 
odour  in  the  flesh  of  a  calf  whose  intestines  contained  over 
one  hundred  ascarides.  Laubion  says  that  he  has  frequently 
had  experience  of  the  same  condition  in  calves.  The  odour 
persists  for  days,  and  it  is  not  removed  by  cooking.  The 
flesh,  moreover,  has  a  peculiar  taste.  The  odour  is  described 
as  sourish  (aigrelette).  It  has  been  known  for  a  long  time  that 
the  ascarides  themselves  give  off  a  peculiarly  pungent  odour 
which  in  some  individuals  causes  symptoms  analogous  to  those 
of  hay  fever.  It  seems  likely  that  the  flesh  becomes  permeated 
by  the  same  odoriferous  agent,  whatever  it  be. 

Inspection.—  Laubion  reports  that,  many  individuals  con- 
sume the  flesh  without  suffering  any  inconvenience,  while 
others  are  nauseated  by  the  smell.  Morot  considers  that  the 
flesh  of  animals,  when  it  exhales  this  odour  in  a  marked  degree, 


246 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


should  be  withdrawn  from  consumption  or  sold  in  la  basse 
boucherie.  Ascarides  in  the  intestines  excrete  poisons  which 
may  cause  serious  trouble  in  animals,  but  more  especially  in 
human  beings.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  nervous  disorder, 
itching  of  the  skin,  and  respiratory  catarrh. 

We  do  not  know  that  ingestion  of  flesh  of  the  above 
description  has  been  the  cause  of  serious  trouble  in  any 
individual,  but  the  Editor  is  of  opinion  that  the  abnormal 
odour  is  of  itself  a  sufficient  reason  for  considering  the  carcase 
unmarketable.  The  intestines  which  contain  the  ascarides  and 
their  eggs  should  in  all  cases  be  destroyed. 


ECHINORHYNCHUS   GIGAS 


This  worm  belongs  really  to  the  Acanthocephali.     It  in- 
habits the   small  intestines  of  the  pig.     It  is  never  seen  in 


FIG.  63.— Head  of  Echino- 
rliynchusgigas.  x  10. — 
RAILLIET,  NEUMANN. 


FIG.    64. — Eckinorhynchus    gigas    (male) 
attached  to  the  intestine.— RAILLIET, 

NEUMANN. 


British  pigs,  but  it  may  be  met  with  in  those  imported  from 
the  United  States.  It  is  said  to  be  frequently  met  with  in 
German  and  French  pigs. 

The  worm  is  cylindrical,  but  tapers  towards  the  posterior 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     247 

extremity.  Its  colour  is  greyish,  with  sometimes  a  violet 
tinge.  The  male  measures  from  2J  to  3  J  x  -J-  in.,  and  the 
female  has  a  length  of  from  8  to  14  in.  The  head  has  a 
globular  rostellum,  which  is  armed  with  five  or  six  rows  of 
spines  (Fig.  63). 

Lesions.— 'The  worms  bury  their  heads  deeply  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  intestine.  Small  abscesses,  of  about  the  size 
of  a  hemp-seed,  form  at  the  seats  of  the  wounds  which 
they  cause.  These  project  on  the  serous  surface,  and  give 
it  a  pearly  appearance.  The  mucous  and  serous  surfaces  may 
show  inflammatory  patches.  Sometimes  the  bowel  is  per- 
forated, in  which  case  peritonitis  results.  The  carcases  are 
often  emaciated  and  dropsical. 

Inspection.— The  bowel  may  be  useless  for  the  manufacture 
of  sausages,  but  the  carcase  need  not  be  interfered  with  unless 
the  flesh  is  so  altered  as  to  render  it  unmarketable. 


CESOPHAGOSTOMA    COLUMBIANUM    (Curtice) 

This  parasite  in  its  adult  state  inhabits  the  intestines  of 
sheep.  It  is  frequently  met  with  in  some  parts  of  America, 
but  it  is  unknown  in  British  sheep.  The  lesions  caused  by 
this  parasite  were  often  seen  at  the  Edinburgh  abattoir  when 
sheep  imported  from  America  were  slaughtered  in  the  city. 
The  male  measures  from  12  to  15  mm.,  and  is  provided  with  a 
caudal  bursa.  The  females  are  longer— 14  to  18  mm.  The 
adults  are  found  in  the  caecum  and  the  parts  of  the  bowel 
posterior  to  it.  When  the  embryos  are  hatched  they  burrow 
beneath  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bowel,  and  give  rise 
to  nodules  in  which  they  undergo  further  development.  The 
largest  embryos  in  the  nodules  measure  from  3  to  4  mm.,  and 
the  smallest  about  -7  mm. 

Lesions.  —  As  already  stated,  nodules  are  formed  in  the 
bowel.  These  are  most  numerous  on  the  caecum  and  posterior 
portions  of  the  large  intestine,  but  they  may  also  be  present 
in  the  small  bowel.  They  range  in  size  from  a  pin-head  to  a 


248  MEAT  INSPECTION 

hazel-nut  (Fig.  65).  The  smaller  ones  look  like  sacs  filled  with 
fluid,  and  a  small  globular  body  is  found  floating  inside.  If 
this  internal  cyst  be  opened,  and  its  contents  examined  under 
the  microscope,  the  embryo  will  be  seen.  The  larger  nodules 
contain  a  greenish-yellow  cheesy  material  and  larger  parasites. 


FIG.  65. — Lesions  caused  by  CEsophayostoma  Columbianum. — CURTICK. 
(a)  Lesions  in  bowel  (nat.  size) ;  (6)  microscopical  section  of  nodule. 

The  oldest  nodules  are  very  hard ;  the  central  portion  has 
dried  up,  and  the  embryos  have  in  many  cases  departed. 
Sometimes  the  mucous  membrane  over  the  larger  nodules 
undergoes  necrosis,  and  ulcers  result.  Histologically,  the 
earliest  nodules  are  composed  of  round  cells  and  embryos. 
Later,  the  central  cells  have  undergone  degeneration,  and 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     249 

the  peripheral  part  of  the  nodule  has  become  fibrous  (Fig.  65). 
The  lesion  is  similar  to  an  encapsuled  abscess.  The  maturer 
embryos  escape  into  the  intestinal  canal. 

Degenerated  nodules  may  also  be  found  in  the  lymphatics 
of  the  omentum  and  in  the  liver. 

Inspection.—  The  bowel  is  valueless  for  use  as  sausage  skins  ; 
it  should  be  destroyed. 

The  flesh  is  usually  not  of  bad  quality,  but,  when  the  bowel 
lesions  are  numerous,  the  carcase  may  be  too  emaciated  for 
the  market. 

EUSTRONGYLUS  GIGAS 

This  parasite  —  the  giant  strongylus  —  is  very  uncommon. 
Carnivorous  animals  are  its  usual  hosts ;  but  it  has  been  found 
in  the  ox.  The  worm  is  round,  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  tapers 
towards  the  extremities.  The  male  may  reach  the  length 
of  12  ins.,  and  the  female  36  ins. 

The  worms  are  found  in  the  renal  pelvis.  They  destroy 
the  kidney  substance,  which  may  be  so  hollowed  out  that  it 
looks  like  a  thin-walled  cyst.  Little  is  known  about  its 
systemic  effects. 

STRONGYLI    OF   HOOSE 

The  term  lioose  is  applied  popularly  to  inflammatory  affec- 
tions of  the  lungs  of  ruminants  and  pigs,  caused  by  strongyli. 
The  parasites  are  most  frequently  seen  in  young  animals. 

The  parasites.— In  sheep  and  goats  one  meets  with  two 
parasites— the  S.  filaria  and  S.  rufescens,  or  Pseudalius  ovis 
pulmonalis  (Koch).  The  S.  rufescens  is  the  most  common. 
It  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  thread-like,  and  measures 
from  18  to  25  mm.  (f-1  in.)  in  the  male,  and  from  25  to  35  mm. 
(1-lf  in.)  in  the  female.  The  females  are  oviparous,  and  the 
eggs  as  well  as  the  hatched  embryos  are  found  in  the  lungs. 

The  eggs  are  elliptical,  and  measure  about  90  p  x  40  //,.  The 
length,  however,  depends  to  some  extent  on  the  pressure  to 
which  they  have  been  subjected.  They  are  of  a  brownish 


250  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

colour,  granular,  and  the  granules  stain  with  eosin.  The 
embryos  are  about  360  /A  long.  If  examined  in  fluid,  they 
move  about  actively  with  a  twisting  motion.  In  the  quiescent 
embryo  the  posterior  part  is  coiled  on  itself. 

The  8.  filaria  is  white  in  colour.  It  is  thicker  and  longer 
than  the  rufescens.  The  male  measures  from  3  to  5  cm. 
(1 1-2  in.),  the  female  may  reach  a  length  of  8  cm.  (3-t  in.). 
The  female  is  viviparous.  The  embryos  measure  540  ^x  20  JJL. 

The  lung  parasite  of  the  ox  is  the  S.  micrurus.  It  is  fili- 
form and  of  a  white  colour.  The  male  measures  4  cm.  (If  in.) 
and  the  female  about  6  cm.  (2f  in.).  The  latter  is  viviparous. 

In  the  pig,  hoose  is  caused  by  the  S.  paradoxus.  This  worm 
is  also  white  and  thread-like.  The  male  measures  from  20 
to  25  mm.,  and  the  female  from  25  to  40  mm.  The  female  is 
either  oviparous  or  viviparous. 

Lesions.— The  S.  rufescens  is  the  most  common  of  the  lung 
parasites,  although  the  adult  worms  are  seldom  numerously 
present. 

The  lesions  caused  by  it  are  present  in  the  lungs  of  99  per 
cent,  of  the  yearling  sheep  killed  in  Edinburgh ;  but  they  are 
not  all  affected  in  the  same  degree.  Old  sheep  are  also  affected, 
but  not  to  quite  the  same  extent.  Probably  lesions  were 
present  in  the  lungs  of  some  of  them  in  their  youth,  but  have 
disappeared. 

The  lesions  do  not  always  take  the  same  form.  In 
yearlings  the  changes  in  the  lung  are  almost  always  the  same. 
The  organ  is  somewhat  firmer  than  normal.  Its  surface 
presents  a  blotched  appearance ;  some  patches  are  dark  brown 
in  colour,  while  others  are  of  a  pale  pink.  Nodules  of  a 
yellowish-white  colour  are  seen  both  on  the  surface  and  in  the 
substance  of  the  organ,  but  more  particularly  in  the  former 
situation.  The  distribution  is  irregular.  Some  of  them  show 
a  greenish  (chlorotic)  tinge.  They  are  firm  in  consistence,  and 
range  in  size  from  a  pin-head  to  a  marble,  but  the  larger  ones 
are  only  present  under  the  pleura. 

Although  they  have  the  appearance  of  being  quite  solid, 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES    251 

they  float  in  water.  On  section  these  large  nodules  look  as 
if  they  were  made  up  of  several  small  ones.  Some  of  the 
smaller  ones  may  be  calcined. 

If  a  scraping  from  one  of  the  larger  nodules  be  examined 
under  a  low  power  of  the  microscope,  it  will  be  found  to  contain 
innumerable  eggs  and  embryos.  Portions  of  the  adults  con- 
taining eggs  will  also  be  seen.  In  some  cases— usually  in  older 
animals— no  nodules  are  present.  The  lungs,  which  are  much 
solider  than  normal,  show  only  a  blotched  appearance  on  the 
surface.  On  section  the  colour  is  a  deep  pink,  and  the  surface 
feels  slimv. 


FIG.  66. — Section  of  lung  of  sheep,  showing  a  disseminated  pseudo-tuberculosis 
(parasitic)  lesion. 

Immediately  under  the  pleura  in  the  darker  areas  the 
tissue  is  still  more  solid ;  it  is  collapsed.  Scrapings  from  the 
superficial  parts  and  smaller  tubes  show  large  numbers  of 
eggs  and  embryos. 

In  yet  another  form,  which  is  also  seen  most  frequently  in 
older  sheep,  the  blotched  appearance  is  absent.  Both  lungs 
stand  out  prominently,  and  a  very  large  number  of  miliary 
nodules  are  regularly  distributed  through  their  substance. 
They  are  whitish  in  colour,  or  they  may  present  a  chlorotic 
hue.  This  lesion  looks  like  the  result  of  a  blood  stream 
invasion  (Fig.  66). 

The  nodular  forms  are  often  referred  to  as  pseudo-tuber- 


2  5  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

culosis,  but  it  is  advisable  to  qualify  the  term  by  the  word 
parasitic  to  prevent  confusion  with  the  bacterial  disease. 

Histologically,  the  youngest  nodules  consist  of  a  collection 
of  leucocytes.  The  parasites  are  small  in  this  stage,  and  they 
are  absent  from  most  of  the  sections.  In  the  more  advanced 
lesions  many  of  the  nodules  show  sections  of  a  parasite  coiled 


FIG.  67. — Lung  of  sheep  showing  the  lesion  of  parasitic  pseudo- 
tuberculosis.  The  centre  of  the  tubercle  contains  sections 
of  the  parasite  (Reichert,  obj.  3). 

up  in  the  centre  (Fig.  67).  Some  of  them  are  calcined. 
Cells  with  brightly  staining  nuclei  are  densely  packed  around 
the  worm.  Caseation  may  be  present,  but  not  nearly  to 
the  same  extent  as  in  a  tuberculous  nodule.  Outside  the 
central  mass  the  cells  are  not  so  densely  packed,  and  many  of 
them  are  epithelioid  in  character.  The  inner  zone  is  sometimes 
separated  from  the  outer  part  by  caseous  patches,  in  which 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     253 

giant  cells  are  present.  The  peripheral  portion  of  the  nodule 
is  made  up  of  large  round  or  angular  cells,  and  there  may  be 
young  fibrous  tissue.  The  lung  tissue  near  the  nodules  is 
usually  open.  This  lesion  resembles  that  of  true  tuberculosis 
both  in  its  macroscopic  and  microscopic  characters,  but  the 
chief  differential  points  have  been  already  referred  to  (see 


FIG.  68. — Lung  of  sheep,  showing  eggs  and  embryos  of  the  Stronyylus 
rufescens  (Reichert,  obj.  3). 

TUBERCULOSIS,  Pathognomonic  Characters  of  the  Lesion).  In 
sections  of  the  large  nodules  one  sees  that  the  lung  tissue  over 
a  considerable  area  is  infiltrated  with  cells,  and  many  eggs  and 
embryos  are  present.  Sections  of  older  or  even  adult  worms 
are  also  found,  and  a  typical  pseudo-tubercle  is  sometimes  seen 
in  the  area. 

In  those  solider  parts  in  which  there  are  110  nodules,  the 
air  cells  contain  a  catarrhal  exudate— leucocytes  and  epithelial 


254  ME  A  T  .INSPECTION 

cells.  Those  towards  the  surface  of  the  organ  are  collapsed, 
or  they  may  contain  eggs  and  embryos.  Many  of  the  eggs 
are  segmenting,  while  others  contain  the  embryo.  The 
bronchial  walls  are  infiltrated  with  round  cells,  and  the 
lining  membrane  is  in  a  state  of  catarrh  (Fig.  68). 

In  several  cases  the  Editor  has  found  nodules  and  free 
embryos  in  the  mediastinal  glands.  M'Fadyean  has  described 
still  another  form  which  the  lesion  may  assume  in  very  chronic 
cases.  The  lung  becomes  indurated  by  the  formation  of 


FIG.  69. — Microscopical  section  of  sheep's  lung,  showing  fibroid 
pneumonia  caused  by  the  S.  rufcscens.  The  papillomatous 
and  adenomatous  structure  is  seen  at  a  and  b. — M'FADYEAN. 

new  tissue.  Large  areas  are  solidified  and  of  a  dirty  white 
colour.  The  pleura  is  thickened,  and  the  two  surfaces  may 
be  adherent. 

The  microscope  shows  a  great  increase  in  the  fibrous  tissue 
of  the  organ.  Many  of  the  infundibula  are  distorted,  and 
some  of  the  smaller  bronchi  show  papillomatous  growths  from 
their  mucous  membrane.  The  appearance  of  the  section  is 
very  like  that  of  an  adenoma  (Fig.  69). 

The  S.  filaria,  micrurus,  and  paradoxus  are  found  in  the 
bronchial  tubes.  No  eggs  or  embryo  are  met  with  in  the  air 
cells,  except  occasionally  in  the  case  of  the  paradoxus.  Nodular 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     255 

pneumonia  has  also  been  described  in  the  pig's  lung,   but 
the  lesion  is  rare. 

Usually  the  lungs  are  consolidated  in  small  patches,  and 
the  tubes  contain  a  quantity  of  frothy  mucous.  The  para- 
sites may  be  so  numerous  that  they  block  the  tubes,  or  only 
a  few  may  be  found  in  the  terminal  portions.  In  some  cases 
the  whole  of  both  organs  is  moderately  consolidated.  Their 
colour  is  greyish  white  all  over,  and  on  section  the  surface 
feels  sticky. 

The  microscope  shows  a  catarrhal  exude  in  the  air  cells, 
and  other  signs  of  broncho-pneumonia.  Some  of  the  air  cells 
are  ruptured  (emphysema). 

Inspection.—  Most  of  the  young  sheep  and  many  of  the 
older  animals  are  in  prime  condition,  notwithstanding  the 
presence  of  parasitic  lesions  in  their  lungs.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  flesh  is  fevered,  or  the  carcases  may  be  emaciated, 
watery,  and  consequently  unmarketable.  The  fevered  con- 
dition is  usually  due  to  an  acute  pneumonia,  which  has  super- 
vened 011  the  parasitic  disease ;  and,  in  the  experience  of  the 
Editor,  other  parasites,  which  could  account  more  satisfactorily 
for  the  emaciation,  are  often  present.  With  regard  to  the 
lungs  themselves,  the  practice  in  Edinburgh  is  to  seize  only 
those  organs  in  which  the  lesions  are  numerous  or  wide-spread. 
Were  the  inspectors  to  seize  every  sheep's  lung  affected  with 
parasitic  disease,  lights,  as  the  butchers  call  them,  would  be 
hardly  obtainable  in  the  market. 

INSECTS 

The  parasitic  insects  are  ectozoa,  with  the  exception  of  the 
larval  forms  of  the  Pentastoma. 

ARACHNIDS 

MANGE;  SCABIES;  PSORIC  ACARIASIS;  SCAB  IN  SHEEP 

Mange  is  a  parasitic  disease  of  the  skin  caused  by  different 
varieties  of  acari. 


256  MEAT  INSPECTION 

Animals  affected.— Every  animal,  including  man,  may 
suffer  from  scabies.  The  parasites  are  not  the  same  in  all  cases, 
although  they  belong  to  the  same  species.  Therefore,  it  is 
customary  to  qualify  the  term  "  mange  "  by  the  class  of  acarug 
which  gives  rise  to  it.  In  the  horse  we  meet  with  sarcoptic, 
psoroptic,  and  symbiotic  mange,  but  not  with  the  follicular 
variety.  In.  cattle,  sarcoptic  mange  is  rare,  but  the  symbiotic 
and  psoroptic  forms  are  pretty  common  in  our  town  cows. 

Follicular  mange  is  rarely  seen  in  cattle;  but  it  is  not 
unknown.  Sheep  are  attacked  most  frequently  by  psoroptic 
mange,  the  symbiotic  and  sarcoptic  forms  are  much  less 
frequent,  and  the  follicular  variety  has  seldom  been  recorded. 

The  commoner  mange  of  the  pig  is  sarcoptic,  but  follicular 
scabies  (Demodex  phylloides  of  Czoker)  has  not  infrequently 
been  met  with  :  Czoker  found  twenty-two  cases  in  one  herd. 
The  goat  occasionally  suffers  from  sarcoptic  mange,  and  the 
demodex  has  been  found  in  one  or  two  cases.  Babbits  are  very 
often  affected  with  sarcoptic  mange  ;  the  Editor  has  several 
times  seen  whole  warrens  attacked.  Poultry  harbour  a  goodly 
number  of  acari  which  do  not  cause  mange,  but  they  are 
also  frequently  the  hosts  of  psoric  sarcoptes.  Man  suffers  from 
sarcoptic  mange,  and  he  is  frequently  infected  by  contact 
with  animals. 

The  parasites.  —With  the  exception  of  the  demodex,  they 
belong  to  the  family  Sarcoptidae.  Of  the  Sarcoptidge  there 
are  three  classes— the  sarcoptes,  the  psoroptes,  and  the  symbiotes. 

In  some  of  the  classes  there  is  more  than  one  variety,  but 
in  a  treatise  of  this  kind  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  the 
general  characters  of  each  class.  The  Demodex  belongs  to 
the  family  Demodecidae.  All  the  mange  acari  are  oviparous ; 
most  of  them  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  but,  with  the 
exception  of  the  sarcoptes,  can  be  easily  enough  seen  with  a 
magnifying  power  of  ten  diameters.  They  have  many  common 
characters. 

Sarcoptes. —The  body  is  oval,  the  head  is  short,  thick,  and 
shaped  like  a  horseshoe.  In  point  of  size  they  are  the  smallest 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     257 

variety,  measuring  •  2-  •  5  mm.  The  legs  are  very  short ;  when 
the  insect  lies  on  its  face  they  hardly  project  bey 01  id  the  body. 
As  in  the  other  acari,  the  legs  number  eight  in  the  adult,  and  six 
in  the  larva.  They  end  in  bell-shaped  suckers  or  in  claws  and 
long  hairs.  The  male  sarcoptes  has  suckers  on  the  first,  second, 
and  fourth  pair  of  legs ;  the  female  has  them  on  the  first  and 


FIG.  70. — Sarcoptes  scabiei. 

second  pair.  The  sarcoptes  of  the  fowl,  however,  has  suckers 
011  all  four  pairs. 

Psoroptes  or  Dermatodectes.  — They  are  longer  than  the 
sarcoptes  —  •  5-  •  8  mm.  The  head  is  long  and  pointed,  and  the 
legs  project  well  beyond  the  body.  Suckers  are  present  on 
the  first,  second,  and  third  pair  of  legs  in  the  male,  and  on  the 
first,  second,  and  fourth  pair  in  the  female. 

Symbiotes  or  Chorioptes.  —They  measure  •  3-  •  5  mm.  The 
breadth  of  the  head  is  greater  than  its  length,  and  it  ends  bluntly 
in  front.  The  male  has  suckers  on  all  four  pairs  of  legs;  the 
female  has  them  on  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  pair. 


ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 


Demodex  folliculonim  (Owen). —This  parasite  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  others.  The  head  is  blunt  at  its  anterior  part, 
and  seems  to  be  in  a  piece  with  the  thorax  at  its  posterior.  The 
thorax  shows  on  its  under-surface  a  longitudinal  ridge  (sternum), 
from  which  four  transverse  bands  pass  to  each  side.  The  latter, 
however,  are  absent  in  the  young.  The  adults  possess  four  pairs 
of  legs,  which  are  fixed  on  the  thorax ;  the  larvae  have  only  three 
pairs.  The  abdomen  is  finely  striated  across,  and  tapers  towards 


FIG.  71.— Demodex  of  pig.      x  250.     A.  Male; 
B.  Female. — NEUMANN. 


the  posterior  extremity.  More  than  one  variety  of  demodex 
is  recognised.  The  chief  difference  seems  to  be  in  the  size, 
which  varies  from  •  22  to  •  24  mm.  in  length,  and  from  •  2  to 
•6  mm.  in  breadth  (Fig.  71). 

The  parasites  of  mange  can  in  most  cases  be  discovered 
in  scrapings  taken  from  the  affected  parts  with  a  blunt 
scalpel.  The  material  may  be  examined  in  the  dry  state,  or 
after  the  scales  and  hair  have  been  triturated  with  liquor  potassce 
(solution,  1  in  20).  By  gently  warming  the  dry  material  on  the 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PAXAS1TES    259 

slide,  the  sarcoptidse  are  made  to  move ;  the  demodex  is  motion- 
less. The  Editor  prefers  the  potash  method,  for  by  it  the  acari 
are  more  clearly  seen,  and  many  of  them  are  set  free  from  the 
epidermic  crusts  by  which  they  are  often  surrounded.  When 
the  acari  are  scarce  he  adds  plenty  of  potash  solution,  pre- 
cipitates the  solids  in  the  centrifuge,  and  examines  the  residue. 
When  looking  for  the  demodex  it  is  unnecessary  to  add  any 


FIG.  72. — Sarcoptic  mange  on  head  of  sheep. 

fluid.  In  cases  which  have  been  treated,  and  in  some  forms  of 
sarcoptic  mange,  it  is  sometimes  very  hard  to  find  a  single 
acarus;  but  this  is  of  less  importance  to  the  Meat  Inspector 
than  to  the  practitioner. 

Lesions.  —  Sarcoptic  and  demodecic  mange  are  the  most 
serious,  because  the  parasites  tend  to  burrow  beneath  the 
epidermis. 

Sarcoptic  mange  is  as  a  general  rule  found  on  the  parts 


26o  MEAT  INSPECTION 

of  the  body  where  the  hair  is  thin,  especially  about  the  head. 
It  may,  however,  spread  all  over  the  body.  In  the  sheep,  the 
goat,  the  pig,  and  the  rabbit,  one  finds  grey  furfur-like  and 
honeycombed  crusts  of  dry  epidermis  around  the  eyes  and 
along  the  nose.  In  bad  cases  the  whole  face  and  head  are 
covered.  Fig.  72  is  from  the  photograph  of  a  case  in  a  sheep 
which  came  under  the  Editor's  notice.  In  the  earlier  stages, 
of  course,  the  lesion  is  not  so  marked :  there  may  be  only 
slight  depilation  and  a  few  papules  or  scabs.  The  surface 
below  the  crusts  is  red,  and  the  latter  contain  a  good  number 
of  parasites. 

Two  varieties  of  sarcoptic  mange  are  met  with  in  poultry  ; 
scabies  of  the  legs  (sarcoptes  mutans)  and  scabies  of  the  bocly 
(sarcoptes  Icevis).  In  the  former  the  legs  become  covered  by 
thick  greyish  crusts ;  in  the  latter  the  chief  symptom  is  falling 
out  of  the  feathers.  The  skin  underneath  is  little  altered. 

Psoroptic  mange.— It  generally  occurs  on  the  neck  and 
body.  In  cattle  it  is  seen  more  particularly  on  the  neck,  the 
croup,  and  the  base  of  the  tail.  The  lesions  are  seldom  serious. 
The  hair  over  the  affected  parts  is  thin ;  the  skin  is  scaly, 
and  shows  both  papules  and  scabs.  In  the  sheep  the  lesions 
are  found  on  the  shoulder,  the  back,  and  the  croup,  inside 
the  thighs,  and  under  the  belly.  Papules,  scabs,  and  even 
pustules  are  present.  The  fleece  is  matted  by  the  dried  dis- 
charges, and  it  is  easily  pulled  out.  Eaw  sores  of  considerable 
extent  are  often  present. 

Symbiotic  mange.— The  lesions  in  this  case  are  the  least 
serious.  There  is  often  little  more  than  an  epithelial  desqua- 
mation.  It  occurs  mostly  on  the  extremities,  especially  around 
the  coronets  in  cattle  and  sheep.  The  symbiotes  are  sometimes 
present  along  with  the  psoroptes  in  mange  of  the  croup  in  cows. 

Follicular  mange.— The  Meat  Inspector  seldom  meets  with 
mange  in  this  form ;  it  is  mainly  seen  in  young  dogs.  The  lesions 
are  usually  confined  to  the  head,  the  neck,  and  the  shoulder. 
The  parasites  invade  the  sebaceous  glands.  At  first  only 
depilated  and  desquamating  patches  are  seen,  but  as  the 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     261 

parasites  increase  in  number  and  germs  gain  access  to  the 
inflamed  glands  these  begin  to  suppurate.  Numerous  pustules 
appear  on  the  skin,  and  large  abscesses  may  form  underneath 
it.  The  skin  becomes  very  thick  and  rugous  (scleroderma). 
The  demodex  can  be  found  in  the  scurf,  and  later  in  the  slimy 
blood-stained  pus. 

In  all  forms  of  mange  the  animal  may  become  much  emaci- 
ated. The  original  lesions  may  have  been  rendered  much  more 
serious,  at  least  from  the  Meat  Inspector's  point  of  view,  by  the 
application  of  severe  remedies  to  the  skin,  or  owing  to  the 
animal  having  rubbed  the  sores. 

Inspection.  —  It  is  by  contact  with  skins  of  mangy  animals 
that  men  may  contract  the  disease.  The  butcher  who  dresses 
the  carcase  runs  a  certain  amount  of  risk  ;  the  consumer  runs 
none.  The  diseased  parts  are  in  most  cases  removed  with 
the  skin  ;  but  injuries  from  rubbing,  from  septic  contamination 
of  the  wounds,  or  from  the  application  of  severe  irritants,  may 
be  great  enough  to  render  the  carcase  unmarketable  in  whole 
or  part.  When  the  damage  is  local,  the  unsightly  parts  can 
be  removed,  and  the  remainder  passed.  It  not  infrequently 
happens,  however,  that  in  animals  slaughtered  after  the 
application  of  a  severe  counter-irritant  the  flesh  is  very  dark 
in  colour,  and  does  not  set  well.  Such  carcases  are  unfit 
for  the  market.  It  is  possible  that  the  carcases  of  sheep 
with  raw  sores  on  their  skins,  if  the  animals  have  been 
dipped  in  arsenical  solutions  shortly  before  death,  might  prove 
harmful  to  the  consumer.  Evidence,  however,  is  wanting  on 
this  point,  and  it  would  always  be  difficult  to  get  a  correct 
history. 

Emaciated  carcases,  of  course,  call  for  seizure,  according  to 
the  degree. 

BOTS  OR  WARBLES 

These  are  larval  forms  of  certain  flies,  two  of  which  are  of 
interest  to  the  Meat  Inspector,  viz.  Hypoderma  or  Oestrus 
bovis,  and  0.  ovis. 


262  MEAT  INSPECTION 

During  the  summer  months  the  female  hypoderma  lays 
her  eggs  on  the  skin  of  oxen,  particularly  about  .the  regions 
of  the  back  and  flanks.  The  embryos  penetrate  to  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues,  where  they  pass  through  several  stages  of 
development,  which  last  about  nine  months. 

In  the  earlier  stages  they  are  club-shaped,  and  of  a  whitish 
colour.  At  the  termination  of  the  period  of  their  parasitic  exist- 
ence the  pupa  case  beneath  the  skin  measures  about  1  in. 
X  J  in.  The  capsules  are  elevated  into  circular  ridges  to  the 
number  of  eleven,  and  show  spines  on  the  surface.  In  colour 
they  are  yellowish  and  speckled  with  brown. 

The  mature  bot  of  the  0.  ovis  is  about  the  same  length  as 
that  of  the  ox,  but  it  is  narrower  and  shows  transverse  mark- 
ings of  a  brownish  colour  on  the  segments.  The  bot  of  the 
sheep  has  its  habitat  in  the  nasal  cavities  and  sinuses  of  the 
head. 

Lesions.— These  parasites  usually  give  rise  to  no  appreciable 
lesions  during  the  first  few  months  of  their  parasitic  existence. 
Little  is  noticed  until  the  spring  of  the  next  year. 

In  the  ox  small  fibrous  nodules  appear  under  the  skin. 
These  ultimately  reach  the  size  of  a  small  walnut.  Their 
summits  are  perforated  by  a  hole  from  which  pus  exudes. 
Under  the  skin  small  haemorrhages  may  be  found,  and  some- 
times there  are  collections  of  pus.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wound 
may  have  healed  after  the  parasite  has  dropped  out,  and  in 
this  case  only  a  cicatrix  is  left.  The  number  of  nodules  varies 
from  a  single  one  to  a  hundred,  or  even  more. 

In  the  sheep  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  cavities 
and  sinuses  is  tumefied.  Sometimes  pus  is  present  in  the 
cavities,  and  there  is  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils. 

Inspection.  — \n  the  case  of  the  ox  the  lesions  are  for  the 
most  part  removed  with  the  skin.  When  small  haemorrhages 
or  collections  of  pus  are  present,  it  may  be  found  necessary  to 
remove  certain  parts  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue  and  the  panni- 
culus  before  allowing  the  carcase  to  go  into  the  market.  In 
dealing  with  sheep,  the  head  should  be  seized  when  there  is 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     263 

evidence  of  catarrh  of  the  membranes ;  otherwise  the  carcase 
is  usually  quite  marketable. 


MAGGOTS 

These  are  the  larvae  of  certain  flies,  which  are  often  de- 
posited on  wounds  of  man  and  animals. 

According  to  Portchinsky,  the  larvae  of  the  Sarcophaga 
magnified,  are  most  frequently  found.  Various  members  of 
the  genus  Lucilia  deposit  their  eggs  on  abraded  surfaces. 

These  larvae  measure  about  half  an  inch  in  length.  They 
are  of  a  greyish  colour,  wire-like,  annulated,  and  actively  motile. 
They  irritate  a  wound  or  abraded  surface,  and  cause  the  animals 
to  rub  the  part  against  fixed  objects.  In  this  way  a  trivial 
wound  may  be  converted  into  a  large  suppurating  patch.  In 
the  hotter  months,  many  sheep,  especially  young  animals,  are 
often  seriously  inconvenienced  by  these  parasites.  A  common 
seat  is  the  region  of  the  anus  after  it  has  become  excoriated 
by  the  discharges  when  the  animals  have  suffered  from 
diarrhoea. 

The  animals  rub  the  abraded  surface,  which  may  ultimately 
extend  over  the  croup. 

The  skin  is  swollen,  and  its  surface  is  raw.  Frequently 
the  wound  exhales  a  foetid  odour.  The  wool  may  have  fallen 
off,  or  it  may  be  matted  by  a  dried  purulent  discharge.  Some- 
times the  maggots  even  burrow  beneath  the  skin. 

Inspection.— The  tissue  underlying  the  sores  may  be  so 
disfigured  as  to  call  for  partial  seizure.  Unless  emaciation 
is  marked,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  rest  of  the  carcase  may 
be  passed. 

PHTHIRIASIS  on  LOUSINESS 

All  animals  are  liable  to  be  invaded  by  lice.  These  insects 
live  on  the  skin  and  produce  a  certain  amount  of  irritation. 
The  hosts  may  under  these  circumstances  rub  themselves  and 
produce  abrasions  on  the  skin,  and  depilation.  When  lice  are 


264 


MEAT  INSPECTION 


present  oil  an  animal  in  large  numbers  they  may  give  rise  to 
a  certain  amount  of  emaciation ;  but  it  should  be  mentioned 
that  animals  in  very  poor  condition,  and  those  wasted  by 
disease,  frequently  harbour  large  numbers  of  lice.  They  may 
sometimes  be  seen  to  swarm  on  cows  in  the  last  stages  of 
tuberculosis.  The  lice  of  cattle  belong  to  the  genera  Hcema- 
topinus  and  Trichodectes.  Sheep  are  invaded  by  the  Tricho- 


FIG.  73.-— Female  ffs&matopinus curystcr- 
nus  of  ox.      x  20.  —NEUMANN. 


FIG.    74. — Female  H&matopinus 
tenuirostris  of  ox.      x   20. — 

NEUMANN. 


dectes  Sphcerocephalus  and  by  the  Melophagus  ovinus  (ked), 
which  is  the  commoner.  '  The  pig  harbours  the  Hcematopin'us 
suis. 

The  large  size  of  these  insects  would  of  itself  enable  one 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  mange  parasites  in  most  cases ; 
but  of  course  there  are  many  other  distinguishing  features, 
which  may  be  seen  on  the  subjoined  figures  (Figs.  73-76).  The 
Hcematopinus  varies  from  2-5  to  3  mm.  in  length  in  the  ox,  to 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     265 

4  to  5  mm.  in  the  pig.  The  Trichodectes  in  sheep  and  cattle 
measures  over  1-5  mm.  in  most  cases.  The  Melophagus  is 
from  3  to  5  mm.  long. 

Inspection.— Lousiness  of  itself  does  not  damage  the  flesh 
of  animals,  but  emaciation  may  co-exist  with  the  presence 
of  the  parasites,  or  there  may  be  superficial  sores.  In  the 
latter  circumstances  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  carcase  may 
be  rendered  unmarketable  ;  but  it  is  seldom  that  the  abrasions 


FIG.  75.  —  Female  Trichodedes-  scalaris        FIG.  76.  —  Melophagus  ovinus.  —  NEU- 
ofox.      x  20.  —  NEUMANN.  MANN.     The  black  line  indicates 

the  natural  size. 

affect  the  underlying  tissues  to  an  extent  which  calls  even  for 
partial  seizure. 


The  most  important  members  of  this  group  are  the  Ixodes 
or  Ticks.  They  are  temporary  parasites  on  sheep,  and  cattle 
and  other  vertebrates.  They  are  much  larger  than  the  mange 
acari.  The  males  measure  about  3  mm.  in  length  x  1-5  mm. 
The  empty  females  vary  from  4  to  8  mm.  x  2-5  mm.  When 
gorged  with  blood  which  they  suck  from  their  hosts  the 
females  may  measure  as  much  as  10  mm.  x  6  mm.  They  are 
found  on  animals  from  May  to  October. 

Lesions.—  These  parasites  make  small  punctures  on  the 
skin  in  order  to  feed.  Sometimes  the  wounds  are  transformed 
into  pustules,  but  the  deeper  tissues  are  seldom  affected.  Ticks, 


266  MEAT  INSPECTION 

however,  are  believed  sometimes  to  inoculate  their  hosts  with 
certain  vegetable  and  animal  parasites. 

Inspection.  — So  far  as  the  tick  is  concerned,  the  lesions 
are  of  no  importance  to  the  Meat  Inspector.  They  are  removed 
with  the  skin. 


PENTASTOMA  DENTICULATUM  OR  T^ENIOIDES 

This  is  the  larval  form  of  the  Pentastoma  tccnioides.  The 
adult  parasites  are  found  in  the  air  passages,  particularly  in 
the  nasal  cavities  of  the  dog.  They  have  011  rare  occasions 
been  met  with  in  the  horse,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  and  in 
human  beings.  The  females  lay  eggs  to  the  number  of  half 
a  million  in  the  respiratory  passages.  The  eggs  are  discharged 
on  to  the  pastures,  and  in  this  way  the  food  of  herbivorous 
animals  may  be  contaminated. 

Animals  affected.  —  It  is  principally  with  the  larval  forms 
that  the  inspector  is  concerned.  These  are  found  chiefly  in 
oxen,  sheep,  and  rabbits,  but  they  have  also  been  found  in  the 
horse,  the  cat,  the  deer,  the  goat,  and  in  man.  Apparently, 
all  animals  may  become  infested  if  the  opportunity  occurs. 

In  this  country  the  parasites  are  exceedingly  rare,  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  number  of  times  the  presence  of  the 
adult  has  been  recorded  in  the  dog.  The  Editor  has  not 
met  with  a  single  case  of  the  denticulatum  in  sheep  or  oxen 
slaughtered  at  the  Edinburgh  abattoir  during  the  last  seven 
years,  and  no  cases  have  been  recorded  from  other  abattoirs. 
In  some  parts  of  the  world,  however,  the  parasite  is  com- 
paratively common.  Friedberger  and  Frolmer  say  that  the 
pentastoma  is  frequently  met  with  at  Berlin  and  Munich. 
Babes  has  observed  the  denticulata  very  frequently  in 
Roumanian  cattle.  In  the  United  States  it  has  been  met 
with  in  two  rabbits  by  Kilborne  and  Curtice. 

The  parasite.— The  immature  parasite  passes  through 
several  stages  in  the  bodies  of  its  intermediary  bearers. 

When  the  eggs  are  swallowed  the  embryos  are  set  free  in  the 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     267 

intestines.  Theseembryos  measure  130  jit  x  GO  p.  Theyresemble 
acari  in  shape.  The  dorsal  surface  is  convex  and  the  ventral 
is  flat.  They  have  two  pairs  of  legs,  each  of  which  ends  in 
two  claws.  At  their  anterior  part  they  are  armed  with  a 
c  boring  apparatus  shaped  like  a 

spur.      The  embryos  bore  their 
way   into     the    abdominal    and 
thoracic  organs,  where  they  be- 
come   encysted.      In    the    cysts 
they  lose    their  legs  and  boring 
apparatus,    and    become    trans- 
formed into  pupae,  measuring  -3 
FIG.    77.  —Pupa    of  Linguatula  mm.  x -18  mm.    During  the  next 
taenioides    nine    weeks     old. —      •  J.T       .1       i  ^ 

LEUCKAET,  NEUMANN.  slx  months  the  larva  Undergoes 

several  changes,  which  result  in 

the  form  termed  Linguatula  denticulata.  In  this  form  it 
measures  from  6  to  8  mm.  It  is  shaped  like  an  almond.  The 
body  is  denticulated  at  its  margins,  and  is  made  up  of  from 
80  to  90  rings.  It  has  hooks  011  its  anterior  end.  The  digestive 
tube  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  body.  The  genital  organs 
are  rudimentary  (Fig.  78). 

Lesions.—  The  embryos  penetrate  to  the  mesenteric  glands, 
the  liver,  the  lungs,  and  less  frequently  to  the  kidneys.  At  first 
there  is  little  alteration  in  the  organs,  but  the  invaded  ones 
become  hollowed  out  by  small  cavities  as  the  parasites  develop. 
The  neighbouring  cavities  become  confluent,  and  form  larger 
cysts.  In  this  way  a  gland  may  undergo  atrophy,  and  be 
converted  into  a  small  cyst  containing  nothing  but  a  brownish 
fluid  and  larvse.  At  first  the  invaded  glands  show  to  the  naked 
eye  only  a  few  brownish  coloured  spots.  They  ultimately 
become  fibrous,  and  may  show  tubercle-like  areas.  Many  of 
the  denticulata  perforate  the  walls  of  the  cysts  and  gain  the 
peritoneal  cavity.  According  to  Leuckart,  they  may  again 
pierce  the  other  abdominal  organs  or  migrate  to  the  lungs 
(Fig.  79). 

The  animals  whose  mesenteric  glands  are  extensively  in- 


268  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

vaded  are  often  emaciated,  and  their  flesh  is  pale,  flabby,  and 
oedematous. 

Inspection.  —  Dogs  are  infected  with  the  adult  pentastoma 
by  eating  the  organs  of  sheep  and  cattle  containing  the 
denticulata.  The  larvae  gain  the  nasal  cavities  by  way  of  the 
nostrils  or  pharynx,  and  become  mature.  The  adults  have 
been  so  seldom  found  in  human  beings  that  we  are  almost 


FIG.  79. — Lung  of  rabbit  infected 
with  Pentastomida. 


FIG.  78. — Pentastomum  denticulatum. 

bound  to  conclude  that  the  risk  of  direct  infection  to  man  is 
very  small.  With  regard  to  infection  of  human  beings  by  the 
denticulata,  Leuckart  says  that  it  takes  place  usually  through 
infected  dogs  smelling  or  licking  the  hands.  He  also  says 
that  men  are  only  invaded  by  small  numbers  of  the  larval 
parasites.  There  is  nothing,  however,  against  the  supposition 
that  human  beings  may  be  infected  by  using  plates  from 


DISEASES  CAUSED  BY  ANIMAL  PARASITES     269 

which  dogs  have  fed,  or  by  eating  garden  vegetables  upon 
which  they  have  deposited  the  eggs  of  the  parasite  by 
sneezing. 

The  diseased  organs  should  not  only  be  excluded  from  the 
market,  but  they  should  be  put  beyond  the  reach  of  dogs 
by  being  immediately  destroyed.  Destruction  of  the  organs 
will  not  only  protect  the  dog  from  the  pentastoma,  but  also 
human  beings  whom  it  might  infect  with  the  denticulata. 
There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  denticulata  ever  migrate 
to  the  muscles.  The  carcase,  then,  may  be  passed,  provided 
it  is  not  emaciated  or  dropsical. 


UNCLASSED  DISEASES 

IN  this  chapter  will  be  described  such  diseases  as  Milk  Fever, 
Louping-Ill,  Rickets,  and  Osteo-Porosis,  all  of  which  are  diffi- 
cult to  c'ass  on  account  of  our  ignorance  of  their  pathology. 


MILK  FEVER 

Milk  fever,  or  parturient  apoplexy,  attacks  cows  immedi- 
ately before  or  a  few  hours  after  parturition.  The  symptoms 
are  those  of  coma,  and  are  probably  produced  by  bacterial 
toxines  absorbed  from  the  uterus.  There  are  no  post- 
mortem signs  which  are  pathognomonic  of  milk  fever. 
There  may  be  congestion  of  the  meninges,  but  this  is  present 
in  other  pathological  conditions,  such  as  the  so-called  stomach 
staggers,  and  poisoning  by  lead.  The  affected  animal,  being 
comatosed,  is  unable  to  rise.  If  she  has  been  down  for  a  day 
or  two  before  slaughter,  the  tissues  upon  which  she  has  been 
resting  most  of  her  weight  will  be  oedematous  and  sometimes 
infiltrated  with  blood.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  sternum  and  hips.  The  skin  over  these  parts  may 
even  be  necrosed  (bed-sores). 

Inspection.  —  So  fatal  is  milk  fever  in  some  localities  that 
the  owner  may  elect  to  slaughter  the  animal  on  the  first  onset 
of  the  disease,  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  better  chance  of 
getting  the  carcase  accepted. 

It  is  seldom  that  cases  of  this  kind  come  to  the  abattoir 

from  city  byres,  for  it  is  not  customary  for  dairymen  to  keep 

270 


UNCLASSED  DISEASES  271 

pregnant  animals.  Most  cases  are  sent  in  from  the  country 
as  dressed  carcases.  If  the  animal  has  been  slaughtered  early 
little  or  no  change  is  observable  in  the  flesh.  No  harm  is 
likely  to  result  from  passing  it.  Indeed,  it  is  often  allowed 
into  the  market  with  the  full  knowledge  of  the  inspector. 
In  the  later  stages  of  the  'disease  the  animal  does  not  bleed 
well.  This  shows  itself  by  a  fulness  of  the  blood  vessels,  blood 
streaks  in  the  tissues,  and  a  general  dark  red  appearance  of 
the  flesh.  Moreover,  as  stated  above,  the  regions  on  which 
the  animal  has  lain  are  often  damaged.  Carcases  of  the 
latter  description  should  be  regarded  as  unmarketable, 
whether  the  cause  of  the  condition  has  been  milk  fever, 
lead  poisoning,  or  stomach  staggers,  all  of  which  may  give 
rise  to  such  changes. 


LOUPING-ILL 

This  is  a  disease  which  is  seen  in  sheep  in  certain  parts 
of  Scotland.  It  is  most  prevalent  in  the  late  spring.  The 
disease  is  characterised  by  nervous  symptoms.  Very  little  is 
known  about  its  pathology  ;  but  M'Fadyean  has  shown  that 
several  different  conditions,  such  as  an  abscess  in  a  vertebra 
and  purulent  meningitis,  account  for  some  of  the  so-called 
cases  of  louping-ill. 

According  to  Williams  and  Greig  Smith,  it  is  a  bacterial 
disease  inoculated  by  ticks ;  but  no  bacterium  has  yet  been 
isolated,  which,  from  its  action  on  animals,  can  claim  to  be  called 
the  microbe  of  louping-ill. 

In  what  are  generally  said  to  be  typical  cases  of  the  disease, 
no  important  lesions  are  found  in  the  internal  organs,  with 
the  exception  of  the  spinal  cord.  The  meninges  are  con- 
gested, and  a  reddish  fluid  or  coagulum  is  found  around  the 
cord.  As  the  animals  become  paralysed  and  unable  to  move 
about  in  search  of  food,  they  become  emaciated.  Abscesses 
may  be  present  under  the  skin  or  in  the  superficial  muscles. 


2  y  2  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

Inspection.— The  flesh  of  animals  killed  at  the  outset  of 
the  disease  may  be  of  good  enough  quality. 

After  paralysis  has  set  in  it  is  emaciated,  flabby,  and  oedema- 
tous.  It  should  not  in  the  latter  circumstances  be  passed  by 
the  inspector. 

RICKETS 

The  chief  anatomical  changes  in  rickets  are  located  in 
the  bones,  but  it  is  regarded  as  a  constitutional  disease.  It 
is  only  seen  in  young  animals.  Those  of  the  abattoir,  with 
the  exception  of  the  pig,  rarely  suffer  from  it. 

In  what  might  be  termed  the  acute  stages,  the  bones  are 
softer  and  more  vascular  than  normal.  The  long  bones  are 
bent  and  their  epiphyses  are  often  swollen.  Microscopical 
sections  show  that  there  is  some  disturbance  in  the  region 
of  the  ossifying  centres.  The  osteoblasts  under  the  periosteum 
are  increased  in  number,  and  calcification  is  proceeding  irre- 
gularly in  the  cartilage  of  growth. 

Inspection.  —  Animals  during  an  attack  of  rickets  are 
generally  in  poor  condition.  They  are  sometimes  cachectic, 
and  their  flesh  has  a  watery  or  anaemic  appearance.  The 
fate  of  the  carcase  should  depend  on  the  condition  of  the 
flesh. 

OSTEOPOROSIS 

Osteo-porosis  is  an  exceedingly  rare  disease  in  this  country, 
but  it  seems  to  be  met  with  more  frequently  in  other  parts  of 
the  Empire.  Several  specimens  have  been  sent  to  the  Dick 
College  from  India.  The  disease  is  seen  mainly  in  horses, 
but  it  has  also  been  described  in  oxen. 

Its  pathology  is  practically  unknown ;  but  it  seems  to  be 
a  systemic  affection,  although  the  bones  are  the  seat  of  the 
chief  anatomical  changes. 

The  bones  of  the  jaws  are  most  frequently  affected.  They 
are  swollen  and  brittle.  The  teeth  become  loosened.  When 


UNCLASSED  DISEASES  273 

the   bones  are   boiled   they   have   a   worm-eaten  appearance. 
Their  tissue  is  markedly  rarefied.1 

Inspection.—  The  subjects  of  osteo-porosis  are  usually  so 
cachectic  and  emaciated  as  to  be  unfit  for  the  market. 

1  Ostco-malacia  is  the  term  given  to  another  disease  in  which  the  principal 
changes  are  found  in  the  bones.  We  are  as  ignorant  of  its  true  nature  as 
we  are  of  that  of  osteo-porosis.  In  osteo-malacia  the  bones  seem  to  become 
decalcified.  They  can  be  bent  in  all  directions,  and  can  sometimes  be  cut  with 
a  knife. 


18 


FOOD  POISONING  IN  MAN 

FOOD  may  prove  infective  or  poisonous  to  human  beings  in 
different  ways :  (1)  As  the  carrier  of  pathogenic  organisms, 
which  are  thus  introduced  into  the  body  ;  (2)  as  containing 
poisonous  alkaloids  and  toxalbumins  produced  by  bacteria  ; 
(3)  as  containing  the  intermediate  forms  of  certain  parasites  ; 
and  (4)  the  flesh  of  certain  fish  and  shell-fish  is  naturally 
poisonous  owing  to  the  presence  of  toxic  secretions  or 
alkaloids. 

I.  Certain  of  the  well-recognised  infective  diseases,  such  as 
tubercle,  glanders,  anthrax,  and  pneumonia,  may  be  contracted 
from  eating  food  infected  with  their  specific  organisms ;  while 
milk  contaminated  with  the  germs  responsible  for  scarlet 
fever,  enteric  fever,  summer  diarrhoea,  etc.,  has  frequently 
been  shown  to  cause  those  diseases  in  man. 

The  flesh  of  animals  which  have  died  of  puerperal  fever 
or  of  other  diseases  the  pathogenic  organisms  of  which  may 
be  quite  unknown,  has  also  occasionally  given  rise  to  epidemic 
outbreaks  in  man— the  illness  often  running  a  course  exactly 
like  that  of  the  specific  fevers.  In  some  of  these  cases 
an  organism  has  been  isolated,  and  on  inoculation  has 
proved  fatal  to  other  animals,  but  frequently  none  has  been 
detected. 

Food  after  being  dressed  or  cooked  may  become  accident- 
ally infected  in  the  same  way,  usually  by  being  kept  in  foul 
cupboards  or  cellars.  In  the  outbreak  of  pneumonia  at 
Middlesbrough  (1888),  which  was  infectious  from  person  to 

274 


FOOD  POISONING  IN  MAN  275 

person,  but  the  origin  of  which  was  traced  to  some  American 
bacon,  it  seems  to  have  been  proved  that  the  contamination 
occurred  accidentally  during  the  process  of  preparing  the  meat 
for  sale.  Klein  isolated  from  the  bacon  a  hitherto  undescribed 
organism  (bacillus  pneumonia!),  which  infected  animals,  and 
was  present  in  the  lungs  and  blood  of  the  human  victims  of 
the  epidemic. 

The  digestive  processes  in  the  stomach  and  duodenum 
probably  destroy  many  bacteria  introduced  in  the  food,  while 
thorough  cooking  is  still  more  potent  in  preventing  such  in- 
fection. The  danger  lies  specially  in  eating  raw  or  imperfectly 
cooked  food,  or  food  which  has  been  kept  for  some  time  after 
cooking. 

These  cases,  which  are  most  properly  classed  as  food 
infection,  since  they  are  due  to  micro-organisms,  show  an 
incubation  period,  and  otherwise  resemble  the  specific  fevers 
in  their  symptoms  and  course. 

II.  Food  of  all  kinds  which  has  been  infected  by  putre- 
factive and  other  organisms,  and  the  flesh  or  milk  of  diseased 
animals,  may  contain  poisonous  ptomains  or  albumoses  (tox- 
albumins,  toxins).  These  poisons  may  be  secreted  directly  by 
the  bacteria,  or  may  be  bodies  formed  under  their  influence 
from  the  breaking  up  of  proteids.  Their  poisonous  action  is 
manifested  shortly  after  ingestion,  as  no  incubation  period  is 
necessary. 

All  kinds  of  food— ham,  pork,  sausages,  tongue,  beef,  veal, 
pies,  fish,  canned  meats,  sardines,  milk,  cheese,  custards,  etc., 
have  given  rise  to  this  kind  of  poisoning.  Food  which  was 
originally  innocuous  may  become  poisonous,  and  may  later 
on  again  become  harmless  owing  to  the  further  decomposition 
of  the  poisonous  products.  Development  of  the  poison  depends 
not  only  on  the  particular  micro-organisms  present,  but  on 
the  accompanying  circumstances  which  may  be  favourable 
or  unfavourable  to  their  chemical  and  biological  activity. 
Thus  the  temperature  or  the  supply  of  oxygen  may  be  all- 


2  y  6  ME  A  T  INSPE  CTION 

important.  In  canned  foods,  anaerobic  organisms  may  flourish 
well  and  produce  toxins,  while  the  same  microbes  would  prove 
harmless  in  food  freely  exposed  to  the  air.  The  early  stages 
of  decomposition,  before  there  is  any  putrefactive  odour  or 
appearance,  are  often  the  most  dangerous,  as  the  poisonous 
albumoses  seem  to  be  an  early  product,  and  to  break  down  later 
into  harmless  substances. 

Heat,  as  applied  in  cooking,  may  destroy  the  toxin,  and 
render  it  harmless  or  lessen  its  activity ;  but  this  is  not  always 
the  case. 

PTOMAINS  (Gr.  ptoma,  a  dead  body)  are  bases  of  the  nature  of 
alkaloids  which  are  formed  in  putrefying  proteid  matter,  or  in 
diseased  living  animals,  by  the  action  of  bacteria.  They  were  first 
described  by  Selmi  of  Bologna  in  1872,  although  they  had  been 
previously  stumbled  upon  by  earlier  investigators.  Gautier  (1881) 
and  Brieger  (1883)  made  elaborate  researches  regarding  their  chemical 
constitution,  and  the  latter  described  two  under  the  names  cadaverin 
and  putrescin,  besides  showing  that  the  previously  known  bodies 
cholin,  neurin,  sepsin,  mydalein,  and  others  belonged  to  this  class  of 
substances.  In  1885,  Vaughan  isolated  tyrotoxicon  from  poisonous 
cheese,  and  since  then  these  bodies  have  been  recognised  as  the 
products  of  the  activity  of  micro-organisms.  The  discovery  of 
tetanin,  tetanotoxin,  typhotoxin,  etc.,  soon  followed,  while  poisonous 
alkaloids  were  isolated  from  the  urine  in  cases  of  diphtheria,  erysipelas, 
etc. 

Chemically  they  are  mostly  bodies  of  comparatively  simple  con- 
stitution, closely  allied  to  ammonia  and  its  immediate  derivatives,  sucli 
as  the  amines.  Some  of  them  are  harmless,  others  have  a  feeble 
toxic  action,  while  others  again  are  very  poisonous.  The  last  usually 
cause  general  depression  of  the  nervous  and  circulatory  systems, 
gastro-intestinal  disturbances,  and  coma.  Some  of  them  have  actions 
like  the  natural  alkaloids,  such  as  muscarin  or  atropin. 

TOXALBUMINS.  TOXINS.  POISONOUS  ALBUMOSES. — These  are  albu- 
minous substances  of  unknown  chemical  constitution  which  are  present 
in  some  plants,  in  snake  and  other  animal  poisons,  and  which  can  be 
manufactured  by  bacteria,  or  produced  by  the  decomposition  of 
albumin. 

In  1883,  Weir  Mitchell  and  Reichert  first  separated  such  an 
albuminous  poison  from  the  venom  of  the  rattle-snake,  and  since  then 
diphtheria-toxin,  tetanus-toxin,  and  many  others  have  been  obtained 
by  growing  specific  organisms  in  suitable  culture  media. 


FOOD  POISONING  IN  MAN  277 

The  best-known  toxins  of  vegetable  origin  are  ricin,  obtained 
from  the  castor-oil  seed,  and  abrin,  from  jequirity  seeds.  All  these 
substances  are  energetic  poisons  to  the  elements  of  nerve-tissue, 
muscle,  and  blood.  Man  arid  other  animals  become  immune  or 
tolerant  to  most  of  them  when  given  in  gradually  increasing  doses 
for  long  periods,  and  the  effects  of  many  of  them  can  be  obviated  or 
antagonised  by  properly  prepared  antitoxins. 

Symptoms.  — Dr.  Ballard,  in  summarising  an  account  of 
fourteen  epidemics  of  food-poisoning  and  food-infection,  states 
that  the  symptoms  are  nearly  always  the  same,  differing 
chiefly  in  their  severity.1  In  the  Middlesbrough  epidemic, 
already  referred  to,  pneumonia  was  present ;  but,  as  a  rule, 
the  gastro-intestinal  tract  is  the  most,  prominently  affected 
part.  Sometimes  there  is  an  incubation  period  ranging  from 
a  few  hours  to  a  few  days,  and  sometimes  the  symptoms  super- 
vene almost  immediately  after  eating. 

When  several  persons  are  attacked  they  are  all  taken  ill 
about  the  same  time,  the  onset  being  usually  sudden.  Faint- 
ness,  prostration,  headache,  abdominal  pain,  vomiting,  and 
diarrhoea  are  the  early  symptoms.  These  may  be  followed 
or  accompanied  by  severe  thirst,  fever,  cardiac  depression, 
twitching  of  muscles,  disturbance  of  vision,  skin  eruptions, 
suppression  of  urine,  and  nervous  collapse.  Death  may  occur 
in  a  few  hours  or  after  a  few  days,  usually  in  coma  but 
sometimes  in  convulsions,  either  from  exhaustion  or  from 
the  specific  effects  of  the  toxins  on  the  heart  or  nervous 
system. 

Cases  vary  greatly  in  severity.  In  some,  headache  and  mild 
diarrhoea  point  to  a  feeble  dose  of  the  poison ;  while  between 
this  and  a  fatal  termination  we  meet  with  all  grades,  the  most 
dangerous  symptoms  being,  of  course,  absent  in  the  slighter 
cases.  Convalescence  may  be  rapid  or  prolonged.  On  post- 
mortem, inflammation  and  haemorrhages  are  present  in  the 
stomach  and  bowels ;  the  lungs  and  other  viscera  are  often 
hyperaemic,  and  necrosed  in  small  patches.  The  kidneys  may 

1  Report  Med.  Officer  Local  Gov.  Board,  1890,  p.  189. 


278  MEAT  INSPECTION 

be  acutely  inflamed.  Sometimes  a  culture  of  the  peccant 
organism  may  be  obtained,  or  it  may  be  detected  by  means 
of  the  microscope.  When  the  poisoning  is  due  to  ptomams 
or  toxins  only,  no  organism  is  present. 

Treatment.  — It  the  case  be  seen  in  the  early  stage,  and  vomit- 
ing and  purging  are  present  without  being  very  severe  and 
exhausting,  the  former  may  be  encouraged  by  giving  hot  water 
to  drink,  and  the  latter  by  washing  out  the  contents  of  the 
bowel  with  hot  water  enemata ;  or  castor-oil  with  a  few  drops 
of  laudanum  in  it,  or  four  grains  of  calomel,  may  be  given. 
If  there  be  great  exhaustion  from  the  diarrhoea,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  give  opium  (alone  or  with  small  doses  of  atropin) 
to  control  it  somewhat. 

Alcoholic  stimulants,  ammonia,  or  spirit  of  camphor 
should  be  given  at  frequent  intervals  to  maintain  the  circula- 
tion. Severe  collapse  should  be  treated  with  hot-water  bottles, 
small  doses  of  strychnine,  and  general  stimulation.  The  treat- 
ment in  every  case  must  be  symptomatic,  and  must  be  directed 
by  the  immediate  individual  circumstances. 

The  food  should  be  bland  and  unirritating,  and  given 
frequently,  and  in  small  quantities  at  a  time. 

In  some  cases  of  MEAT-POISONING,  and  often  in  FISH- 
POISONING,  the  symptoms  closely  resemble  those  caused  by 
large  dose:;  of  atropin  or  belladonna,  and  the  poisonous 
alkaloid  causing  them  has  therefore  been  named  ptomatropin. 
The  chief  effects  in  man  are  dryness  and  constriction  in  the 
throat,  vomiting,  vertigo,  wide  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  weak 
rapid  pulse,  and  Avandering  delirium,  which  may  pass  into 
coma  and  death.  The  symptoms  vary  greatly,  however,  in 
individual  cases.  Treatment  is  symptomatic  chiefly.  These 
cases  are  often  fatal. 

CHEESE  POISONING.— In  1883-84  numerous  cases  of  cheese 
poisoning  occurred  in  the  State  of  Michigan.  On  investigation 
the  cheese  presented  no  special  peculiarities  either  in  smell  or 
taste,  but  on  pressure  it  exuded  numerous  drops  of  an  opal- 
escent fluid,  which  contained  micrococci. 


FOOD  POISONING  IN  MAN  279 

The  cheese  was  extracted  with  acidulated  water,  caustic 
soda  was  added  to  give  an  alkaline  reaction,  and  the  whole 
shaken  up  with  ether.  The  ether  was  separated  and  evapor- 
ated in  vacuo,  when  needle  shaped  crystals  of  an  alkaloid 
appeared,  which  was  named  tyrotoxicon  by  Vaughan,  its 
discoverer.  He  has  also  found  it  in  spoiled  milk,  and  in 
poisonous  dishes  made  with  milk.  It  may  be  present  only 
in  a  small  part  of  the  cheese,  the  remainder  being  harmless, 
and  it  is  a  product  of  bacterial  activity. 

The  symptoms  caused  in  man  by  cheese  containing  tyro- 
toxicon are  as  follows  :— There  is  a  feeling  of  constriction  in 
the  fauces,  nausea  and  vomiting,  w^ith  retraction  of  the 
abdominal  wall,  abdominal  pain,  and  diarrhoea.  This  is  accom- 
panied by  great  general  depression.  In  very  severe  cases 
there  is  extreme  collapse,  without  vomiting  or  purging,  and 
the  muscular  wall  of  the  intestine  may  be  so  firmly  con- 
tracted that  severe  constipation  ensues,  and  enemata  cannot  be 
administered.  Death  takes  place  in  coma. 

Treatment  should  be  directed  to  washing  out  the  stomach 
and  bowel,  and  stimulation  must  be  resorted  to  in  order  to 
maintain  the  circulation.  The  administration  of  atropin  and 
of  amyl  nitrite  has  been  suggested  for  relief  of  the  intestinal 
spasm.  Opiates  should  be  given  if  necessary. 

MILK  SICKNESS.— This  is  an  affection  seen  in  certain  parts 
of  the  United  States,  but  apparently  only  in  recently-settled 
places,  and  disappearing  when  the  land  has  become  thoroughly 
cultivated.  The  cows  seem  to  suffer  from  an  infective  disease 
of  which  trembling  is  a  prominent  symptom,  while  their  milk, 
and  butter  and  cheese  made  from  it,  as  well  as  their  flesh,  are 
all  poisonous  to  human  beings.  The  symptoms  produced  are 
lassitude,  headache,  nausea,  vomiting,  colic,  and  constipation. 
The  respiration  is  laboured,  there  is  no  tenderness  of  the 
abdomen  on  pressure,  and  no  fever.  Death  may  take  place 
from  prostration.  As  it  is  an  infective  disease  the  indications 
are  to  maintain  the  strength,  and  treat  symptoms  as  they 
arise. 


280  MEAT  INSPECTION 

III.  Flesh  may  contain  the  cysticerci  of  tape-worms,  and 
thus  give  rise  to  intestinal  parasites.  Tape-worms  often  give 
rise  to  110  very  definite  symptoms  in  man,  and  are  usually 
diagnosed  by  segments  being  passed  per  rectum.  Occasionally 
they  cause  malnutrition,  reflex  disturbances,  digestive  dis- 
orders, or  anaemia.  The  treatment  is  to  give  one  drachm  of 
liquid  extract  of  male-fern,  in  capsule  or  as  an  emulsion, 
preceded  and  followed  by  small  doses  of  castor-oil. 

TRICHINIASIS  has  been  a  recognised  disease  in  man  since 
1860.  Its  clinical  symptoms  are  divisible  into  three  stages, 
corresponding  to  different  stages  in  the  behaviour  of  the 
parasites.  There  is  first  of  all  the  stage  of  intestinal  irritation, 
commencing  a  few  hours  after  swallowing  the  diseased  pork, 
and  corresponding  to  the  growth  and  sexual  activity  of  the 
trichinae,  and  to  the  emigration  of  their  progeny.  This  may 
cause  vomiting,  diarrhoea,  pain,  and  severe  gastro-iiitestinal 
catarrh,  or  may  result  in  almost  no  symptoms. 

About  the  ninth  or  tenth  day  pain  and  stiffness  are  felt 
in  the  muscles,  which  are  found  to  be  hard,  painful,  swollen, 
and  tender  to  the  touch.  The  temperature  goes  up  to  102° 
or  103°,  and  various  muscular  movements  become  difficult 
or  impossible.  These  symptoms  result  from  the  immature 
trichinae  encysting  themselves  in  the  muscles  and  causing 
local  irritation  and  constitutional  disturbances.  Subcutan- 
eous oedema,  profuse  perspirations,  emaciation,  and  lowered 
vitality  follow,  with  stupor  or  delirium.  Death  often  happens 
at  this  stage  from  prostration,  pneumonia,  or  oedema  of  the 
lungs;  but  if  not,  convalescence  generally  sets  in  about  the 
fifth  or  sixth  week,  when  the  myositis  subsides,  and  the  para- 
sites become  completely  encysted,  this  constituting  the  third 


Treatment  must  be  directed  to  expelling  the  parent  trichina? 
from  the  bowel,  as  the  embryos  cannot  be  acted  on  when  in 
the  muscles.  Purgatives  in  large  doses  should  be  given  daily 
for  at  least  three  weeks  after  infection  has  occurred.  The 
ordinary  anthelmintics  are  valueless.  When  the  disease  is 


FOOD  POISONING  IN  MAN  281 

fully  developed  the  only  treatment  possible  is    to  maintain 
the  patient's  strength. 

IV.  Poisonous  fish  are  not  of  practical  importance  in  this 
country.  The  poison  is  either  secreted,  like  that  of  snakes, 
for  purposes  of  offence  and  defence,  or  the  flesh  may  become 
poisonous  from  certain  small  invertebrates  on  which  .the  fish 
habitually  feed.  Mussels  sometimes  contain  a  poison  which 
produces  symptoms  resembling  those  of  cholera. 

Brieger  has  isolated  from  poisonous  mussels  an  alkaloid 
which  he  named  mytilotoxin,  and  which  causes  great  depres- 
sion of  the  whole  nervous  system.  Skin,  eruptions  are  often 
caused  by  eating  shell-fish.  Here  again  treatment  must  be 
guided  by  the  symptoms  in  individual  cases. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BOOKS  AND  PAPEES  CONSULTED1 

MM.  NOCARD  ET  LECLAINCHE. — "  Les  maladies  microbieimes  des  animaux," 

2nd  edition. 
FRIEDBERGER  AND  FROHNER. — "  Pathologie  et  therapeutique  des  animaux 

domestiques,"  Fr.  trans,  by  MM.  CADIOT  ET  BJES. 
NOCARD. — "  Les  tuberculoses  animales,"  Paris. 
NEUMANN. — "Parasites   of   the   Domesticated   Animals,"   trans,   by    Dr. 

Fleming. 

LEUCKART.— "  The  Parasites  of  Man,"  trans,  by  Hoyle,  1886. 
OSTERTAG. — "  Handbuch  der  Fleisclibeschau,"  1899. 


ASCARIDES 

MOROT. — "Odour  anormale  de  la  viande  attribute  a  la  presence  de 
nombreux  ascarides  dans  1'intestin  grele  d'un  veau  de  lait,"  Rec. 
de  med.,  Paris,  30th  Aug.  1898  and  30th  Dec.  1898. 


ASPERGILLOSIS 

LINIERES   ET   PETIT. — "Peritonite    aspergillaire    des   dindons,"  Rec.    de 

med.  vet.,  Paris,  15th  March  1898. 

LUCET. — "  Sur  1'aspergillus  fumigatus,"  Rec.  de.  med.  ve't.,  30th  June  1894. 
LUCET. — "Eltude  experimentale  et  clinique  sur  1'aspergillus  fumigatus," 

Rec.  de  med.  vet.,  30th  Aug.  1896. 
THARY  ET  LUCET. — "  Mycose  aspergillaire  chez  le  cheval,"  Rec.  de  med. 

vet.,  15th  June  1895. 
REDON. — "  Sur  1'infection  produite  par  1'aspergillus  fumigatus,"  Rec.  de  med. 

vet.,  15th  March  1896. 
REDON. — "Etude  sur  1'aspergillose  chez  les  animaux  et  chez  I'homme," 

Monograph,  1897. 

1  The  Editor  regrets  that,  owing  to  a  hurried  departure  for  South  Africa,  he  has 
been  unable  to  prepare  a  complete  list  of  books  and  papers  consulted.  It  will  be 
found,  however,  that  the  names  of  most  of  the  authors  quoted  are  mentioned  in 
the  text. 

283 


284  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BACTERIAL  PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS 

CHERRY  AND  BULL. — "  Pseudotuberculosis  in  Sheep,"  Veterinarian,  Aug. 

1899. 
Departmental  Reports,  Melbourne,  1899. 


BLADDER  WORMS 

MOROT. — "Ladrcrie  et  pseudoladrerie  muscnlaire  chez  le  mouton,"  Rec. 

de  med.  vet.,  30th  Dec.  1899. 
MOROT. — "  Cysticerques  des  parois  stomachales  chez  un  pore  ladre,"  Eec. 

de  med.  vet.,  30th  Dec.  1899. 

MOROT.— "Bull.  Soc.  Gent,  de  med.  vet.,  1895,  pp.  73,  578. 
MEGNIN. — "Muscular  Echinococcosis,"  Compt.  rend.  Soc.  de  la  Biol.,  1881, 

p.  105. 
HOSE. — "  On  the  Vesicular  Entozoa,  and  particularly  Hydatids,"  London 

we'd.  Gazette,  9th  Nov.  1833. 

BRAXY 

COWAN  AND   BORTHWICK. — "  On  Braxy  in  Sheep,"  High,  and  Agric.  Soc. 

Reports,  July  1861. 

DUNCAN. — "  Summary  of  Prize  Essays,"  High,  and  Agric.  Soc.  Reports,  1803. 
HOGG. — "  Essay  on  the  Disease  of  Sheep  called  Sickness  or  Braxy,"  Edin. 

Vet.  Review  and  Ann.  of  Coinp.  Path.,  vi.  1864. 
JENSEN. — "Braxy,  its  Causes  and   Prevention,"  Trans,  in  Veterinarian, 

Sept.  1896. 

CATTLE  PLAGUE. 

CARR^  ET  FRAIMBAULT. — "  Note  sur  la  contagiosite  de  la  peste  bovine  au 

pore,"  Ann.  de  VInst.  Pasteur.,  Dec.  1898. 
VERNEY. — "The  Rinderpest  in  S.  Africa,"  J(mr?«.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap., 

June  1897. 

WALLEY. — "Four   Bovine  Scourges." 
GAMGEE.— "  Cattle  Plague." 

DIPHTHERIA 

GALLI-VALERIO. — "L'etat  actuel    de   la    question    sur    1'identite  de  la 

diphtherie  de  1'homme  et  des  oiseaux,"  Centralbl.  f.  Bakteriol.,  xxii. 

1897. 

GRATIA  ET  LIENAUX. — Ann.  de  med,.  vet.,  Aug.  1898. 
GALLEZ. — "Diphtherie  Animale,"  Ann.  de  med.  vet.,  June,  July,  and  Aug 

1895. 
LOIR  ET  DUCLOUX. — "Contribution  a  1'etude  de  la  diphtherie  aviaire  en 

Tunisie,"  Ann.  de  VInst.  Pasteur,  1894,  p.  559. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  285 


DISSEMINATED  NECROSIS 

HAMILTON. — "Necrosis  of  the   Liver,"  Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and   Therap., 

June  1891. 
M'FADYEAN. — "  Disseminated  Necrosis  in  the  Livers  of  Oxen  and  Sheep, 

Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  Dec.  1891. 


DISTOMATOSIS 

GOMY. — "  La  douve  pancreatique,"  Rec.  de  me'd:  vet.)  30th  July  1897. 
GOMY. — "Sur  la  presence   d'une  douve  hepatique   dans    le   cceur  droit 

d'une  vache,"  Rec.  de  me'd.  vet.,  July  1897. 
STOCKMAN. — "  The  Structure  and  Origin  of  Cavernous  Angiomata  in  the 

Livers  of  Oxen,"  Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  1896. 


FATIGUE  POISONS 

BOULET.— Bull,  de  VAcad.  roy.  de  me'd.,  24th  Sept.  1878. 

GULLIVER.—"  On  the  State  of  the  Blood  and  Muscles  of  Animals  killed 

by   Hunting  and    by   Fighting,"    Edin.    Med.    and    Surg.   Journal, 

1848. 
FOURNOL.  — "  Contribution  a    1'etude    du    surmenage,"    Monogr.,   Paris, 

1879. 
PLEINDOUX. — "  Note  relative  aux  viandes  d'animaux  tues  dans  1'arene  au 

point  de  v"ue  de  la  consornmation,"  Journ.  de  me'd.  vtft.  et  zootech.,  Lyon, 

Aug.  1898. 
REDON.— Ann.  de  me'd.  vet.,  Aug.  1895. 


FOOT  AND  MOUTH  DISEASE 

FORTUNA. — "La  decouverte  du  bacille  de  la  fievre  aphteuse"  (Discus- 
sion), Rec.  de  me'd.  vet.,  1896. 
Report  of  Royal  Commission  on  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  1866. 


GLANDERS 

BOURGES  ET  MERY.—  "Sur  le  sero- diagnostic  de  la  morve,"  Compt.  rend. 

Soc.  de  Uol,  5th  Feb.  1898. 
M'FADYEAN, — "The    Pulmonary    Lesions    of    Glanders,"    Journ.    Comp 

Path,  and  TJierap.,  March  1895. 
M'FADYEAN. — "  Preliminary  Note  on  the   Sero-Diagnosis  of   Glanders," 

Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  Dec.  1896. 
NOCARD. — "  Sur  la  mallein  "  (Kidney  Lesions  of  Glanders),  Rec.  de  me'd. 

vet.,  1894. 
NOCARD. — "  Morve  aigue  avec  lesions  du  rein  et  sans  lesions  pulmonares," 

Rec.  de  me'd.  vet.,  1897. 


286  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

SCHUTZ. — "A  Contribution  to  the   Subject  of   Glanders,"  Trans.,  Journ. 

Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  March  1868. 
STOCKMAN. — "  The   Pathological    Effects    of    Dead   Glanders   Bacilli   on 

Animals,"   Journ.    Comp.    Path,    and    TJierap.,   June   1897   (Parasite 

Lesions  in  Lungs). 

PEUCHU. — "Sur  la  morve  du  mouton,"  Soc.  de  biol.,  March  1889. 
WLADIMIROFF. — "  Sur  le  phenomene  d'agglutination  dans  la  morve,"  Eec. 
de  me'd.  vet.,  1897 

HORSE-FLESH  TEST 

HUMBERT. — "Sur  un  procede  chimique  pour  reconnaitre  la  viande  de 

cheval,"  Rec.  de  me'd.  vet.,  30th  Dec.  1894. 
COURTOY  ET  COREMANS. — "  Precede  chimiqne  pour  reconnaitre  la  viande 

de  cheval,"  Rec.  de  me'd.  vet.,  15th  Jan.  1896. 
TROTTER. — "  On  Niebel's  Method  of  Detecting  Horse-Flesh  ;  Journ.  Comp. 

Path,  and  Therap. 

LEUKEMIA 
KAUPP. — "  Leukaemia,"  Journ.  Comp.  me'd.,  and  Vet.  arch.,  June  1899. 


MALIGNANT  CATARRH 

EDGAR. — "So-called  Malignant  Catarrh,"  Veterinarian,  Jan.  1897. 
LECLAINCHE. — "  Etude  experimental   du  coryza  gangreneuse,"  Rev.  vet., 
1898,  p.  69. 

MALIGNANT  (EDEMA 

MENEREUL. —  "Gangrene    gazeuse    produit    par    le    vibrion    septique," 
Ann.  de  I'Inst.  Pasteur,  1895. 


PIGMENTATION 

MOROT. — "Un  cas   remarquable    de    pigmentation    melanique  chez   un 

veau,"  Rec.  de  me'd.  vet.,  30th  Dec.  1896. 
MOROT. — "  Infiltration  de  divers  tissus  chez  un  agneau,"  Rec.  de  me'd.  vet., 

30th  Dec.  1899. 

PSOROSPERMOSIS 

M'FADYEAN.  —  "Intestinal    Psorosperrnosis    in    Lambs,"    Journ.    Comp. 

Path,  and  Therap.,  March  1896. 
GAIR. — "  Psorospermosis  of  the  Intestines  in  Cattle,"  Journ.  Comp.  Path. 

and  Therap.,  June  1898. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  287 


RABIES 

DECROIX.— Rec.  de  med.  ve't.,  30th  March  1898. 

NOCARD  ET  Roux. — "  A  quel  moment  le  virus  rabique  apparuit  et  dans 
la  bave  des  animaux  enrage,"  Ann.  de  I'Inst.  Pasteur,  1890. 


RINGWORM 

MEGNIN. — "  Sur  une  variete  de  la  teigne   faveuse  a  forme  lycoperdoid 

chez  le  lapin  a  fourrure,"  Soc.  de  biol.,  1882. 
MEGNIN. — "Difference  specifique  entre  le  champignon  de  la  teigne  des 

poules  et  celui  de  la  teigne  faveuse,  demontree  par  la  culture,"  Soc. 

deBiol,  1890. 
NEUMANN. — "  Identite  du  favus  des  poules  et  du  favus  d'homme,  Soc 

de  Biol.,  1886. 
NEUMANN. — "  Sur  le  favus  des  poules,"  Soc.  de  biol.,  1886. 


SARCOCYSTS 

BEALE. — "  The  Microscope  in  Medicine,"  London,  1878. 

BEAUNIS. — "Sur  la   signification    hygienique    des    gregarines"    (Linde- 

mann),  Gaz.  med.,  Paris,  1868. 
COBBOLD.— Lancet,  1866,  p.  88. 
COBBOLD. — "Remarks    on    Spurious    Entozoa    found    in    Diseased   and 

Healthy  Cattle,"  Trans.  Path.  Soc.,  1866,  vol.  xvii.  p.  452. 


STRYCHNINE  IN  MEAT 

LEWIN. — "Recherches  experimentales  sur  le  tetanos  du  a  1'ingestion  de 
viande  des  poules  empoisonnees  par  la  strychnine,"  Revue  par 
Kaufmann,  Rec.  de  med.  vet.,  July  1896. 


SWINE  ERYSIPELAS 

JENSEN. — "  Die  Aetiologie  des  Nesselfiebers  .  .  .  des  Schweines"  Deutsche 

Ztschr.f.  Thiermed.,  xviii.  1892. 
RABE. — "Ueber   Infectionskrankheiten   der   Schweine,"    Berl.   thierartzl. 

Wchnschr.,  1895. 

M'FADYEAN.— Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  1891. 
MURRAY  AND  STEPHENSON. — "  Swine  Erysipelas,"   Journ.    Comp.  Path. 

and  Therap.,  March  1892. 
Annual  Report   of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  (The  Diseases  of  Animals 

Act),  1896. 
Second  Report  of  the  Departmental   Committee  appointed  by  the  Board  of 

Agriculture  to  inquire  into  Swine  Fever,  1897. 


288  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


SWINE  FEVER 

POUCHET. — "  Intoxication  par  la   viande   de   pore  avarice,"  Soc.  de  Med. 

legate,  8th  Feb.  1897. 
M'FADYEAN. — "  Swine   Fever,"   Journ.    Comp.    Path,   and   Therap.,   Dec. 

1895,  June  1896,  March  1897,  June  1897. 
Report  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  (The  Diseases  of  Animals  Act),  1896. 

TRICHINOSIS 

CHATIN.— "Sur  la  presence  de  la  trichine  dans  le  tissu  adipeux,"  Compt. 

rend.  Acad.  d.  sc.  1881. 

CHATIN. — "  La  trichine  et  la  trichinose,"  Monogr.,  Paris,  1883. 
COLIN. — "  Sur  les  trichines  et  la  trichinose,"  Bull,  de  VAcad.  roy.  de  med., 

5th  Feb.  1884. 
FOURMENT. — "  Sur  la  vitalite  des  trichines  dans  les  viandes  ralees,"  Compt. 

rend.  Acad.  d.  sc.,  xciv.  1882. 
LABOULBENE. — "  Relation  sur  la  primiere  epidemic  de  trichinose  constatee 

en  France,"  Bull,  de  VAcad.  de  med.,  15th  Feb.  1881. 
PROUST. — Bull,  de  VAcad.  roy.  de.  vied.,  1884  (Discussion,  5th  Feb.). 
VALLiN.--.BttM.  de  VAcad,  de  med.,  1881,  p.  264. 
ZENKER. — "Note  sur  1'infection  trichinaire  chez  1'honime,"  Compt.  rend. 

Acad.  d.  sc.,  16th  Feb.  1863. 

TUBERCULOSIS 

COLIN. — "  Transmission  de  la  tuberculoses  aux  grand  ruminants,"  Compt. 
rend.  Acad.  d.  sc.  1885. 

GILBERT,  CADIOT,  ET  ROGER.—"  Contribution  a  1'etude  de  la  tuberculose 
aviaire,"  Congre's  de  la  Tuberculose,  1891. 

GILBERT,  CADIOT,  ET  ROGER.—"  Inoculation  aux  gallinaces  de  la  tuber- 
culose des  mammiferes,"  Memoirs  de  la  Soc.  de  biol.,  1891. 

GILBERT,  CADIOT,  ET  ROGER.  —  "Inoculation  de  la  tuberculose  des 
gallinaces  aux  mammiferes,"  Compt.  rend.  Soc.  de  biol.,  1896. 

GILBERT,  CADIOT,  ET  ROGER. — "  Unicite  des  tuberculoses  humaine  et 
aviaire,"  Compt.  rend.  Soc.  de  biol.,  1896. 

KAESTNER. — "Ein  Weiterer  Beitrag,"  Miinchen.  med.  Wchnschr.,  1892. 

LECLAINCHE. — "  La  virulence  des  viandes  tuberculenses,"  Rev.  de  la 
tuberculose,  1894. 

LECLAINCHE.— "  Tuberculose  aviaire,"  Rev.  de  la  tuberculose,  1896. 

MOREAU. — "  Prophylaxie  de  la  tuberculose  d'origin  alimentaire,"  Paris, 
1894. 

M'FADYEAN. — "  Tuberculous  Mastitis  in  Cows,"  Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and 
Therap.,  1889. 

M'FADYEAN. — "  The  Virulence  of  the  Blood  and  Muscles  in  Tuber- 
culosis," Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  March  1892. 

M'FADYEAN.— "  The  Infectivity  of  the  Blood  and  Muscular  Tissue  and 
Lymphatic  Glands  in  Generalised  Tuberculosis  of  the  Ox,"  Journ. 
Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  Dec.  1898. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  289 

NOCARD.  — "  Sur    les     relations     qui     existent     entre     la     tuberculose 

hnmaine  et  tuberculose  aviaire,"  Ann.  de  Vlnst.  Pasteur,  Sept.  1898. 
NOCARD. — "  Les  tuberculoses  animales,"  Paris, 
Report  of  Royal  Commission  on  Tuberculosis,  1898. 

STOCKMAN. — "Tuberculosis  of  Muscle  in  the  Pig,"  Veterin.,  March  1896. 
STOCKMAN  — "Pathological    Effects    of    Dead    Tubercle    and    Glanders 

Bacilli  on  Animals,"  Journ.  Comp.  Path,  and  Therap.,  June  1897. 
STRAUS  ET  WURTZ. — "  De  Faction  du  sue  gastrique  sur  le  bacille  de  la 

tuberculose,"  Comp.  rend.  Congres  de  la  tuberculose,  1888. 
STRAUS  ET  GAMALEIA. — "La  tuberculose  humaine,  sa  distinction  de  la 

tuberculose  des  oiseaux,"  Arch,  de  med.  exper.,  1891. 


INDEX 


ABATTOIIIS,  19. 

Abscess  (sec  Suppuration),  122,  124. 

Acariasis,  255. 

Actinomycosis,  111  ;  parasite  of,  111  ; 

lesions    of,    112 ;     of    the    various 

organs,  112-115  ;  inspection  in  the 

case  of,  115. 
Adenoma,  53. 
Age  of  carcases,  23. 
Albumoses,  63,  276. 
Alterations    in    flesh     produced     by 

drugs,  57. 

Amphistoma  conicum,  232. 
Amyloid  disease,  48. 
Anaemia,  73  ;  due  to  tseniee,  224  ;  due 

to  nematodes,  233. 
Animal  parasites,  diseases  caused  by, 

186. 
Anthrax,  165  ;  animals  affected  by,  165  ; 

microbe  of,  165  ;  lesions  of,  166,  167  ; 

inspection  in  the  case  of,  167,  168. 
Apoplexy  (splenic),  165. 
Arachnidse,  255. 
Ascarides,  245  ;  inspection  of  animals 

harbouring,    245,    246 ;    perforation 

of  the  bowel  by,  233. 
Aspergillosis,    140  ;    animals  affected 

by,    140 ;     Aspergillus   fumigatus, 

140  ;   lesions  of,  141  ;  inspection  in 

the  case  of,  141. 

BACTERIAL  diseases,  79. 

,,          necrosis,  142. 

,,          pseudo-tuberculosis,  108. 
Ealbianise,  190. 
Bile,  pigmentation  bjT,  46. 
Bilharzia,  bovis,  230;  lesions  of,  231  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of,  232. 


Black  quarter,  171  ;   animals  affected 

by,  171 ;  microbe  of,  171  ;    lesions 

of,  171,  172  ;  inspection  in  case  of, 

172,  173. 
Blood,  diseases  of  the,  73  ;  prohibition 

against  use  of,  6. 
Blown  veal,  22. 
Botryomycosis,  131  ;  animals  affected 

by,  131  ;  lesions  of,  131  ;  inspection 

in  the  case  of,  172,  173. 
Bots,    261  ;  lesions   caused    by,    262 ; 

inspection  in  the  case  of,  232. 
Braxy,     173 ;     animals    affected     by, 

174  ;  lesions  of,    174 ;    microbe   of, 

174  ;  inspection  in  the  case  of,  174, 

175. 

CACHEXIA,  224. 

Calcification,  45. 

Calves,  diphtheria  of,  139  ;  diarrhoea 
in,  181. 

Carcases,  differences  referable  to  species, 
sex  and  age,  23-32;  of  bovine 
animals,  22  ;  of  goats,  25  ;  of  horse, 
25  ;  of  sheep,  25. 

Carceag,  188. 

Carcinoma,  53. 

Catarrh,  see  Malignant,  of  the  ox  and 
sheep. 

Cattle  Plague,  161  ;  animals  affected 
by,  161  ;  lesions  of,  161,  162  ;  in- 
spection in  the  case  of,  162. 

Cestodes,  196. 

Cheese  poisoning,  279. 

Chemical  agents  in  the  preservation  of 
flesh,  23. 

Cholera  of  hogs,  145;  of  fowls,  179. 

Cirrhosis  of  liver,  see  Distomatosis. 


291 


292 


INDEX 


Coccidiosis,  192  ;  animals  affected  by, 
192,  193  ;  parasites  of,  193  ;  lesions 
of,  194-196  ;  inspection  in  the  case 
of,  196. 

Coenurus  cercbralis,  220,  221  ;  animals 
affected  by,    220  ;    lesions 
of,  221-223  ;  inspection  in 
case  of,  223. 
,,        serialis,  223. 

Contagious  Pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle, 
153  ;  microbe  of,  153  ; 
lesions  of,  153  ;  resem- 
blance of,  to  septic  pneu- 
monia, 155. 

,,"          Pneumonia  of  swine,  152  ; 
microbe  of,  152  ;  lesions 
of,    152 ;    inspection  in 
the  case  of,  153. 
Cow-pox,  see  Variola. 
Cumberland  disease,  see  Anthrax. 
Cysticercus  bovis,  198. 
,,          celhilosse,  200. 
, ,          cerebralis,  221, 222 ;  animals 
affected  by,  221  ;   lesions 
of,  221,  223  ;  inspection 
in  the  case  of,  223. 
,,          pisiformis,  213  ;  inspection 
in     the     case     of,     213, 
214. 

,,  tenuicollis,  210 ;  animals 
affected  by,  210  ;  lesions 
of,  211  ;  inspection  in 
the  case  of,  213. 

DEGENERATION,  47. 
Demodex  folliculorum,  258. 
Dermatomycosis,  182. 
Development  of  meat  inspection,  1-13. 
Diarrhoea  due  to  tsenire,  224;  due  to 

nematodes,  233. 

,,  of    young    animals,    181  ; 

animals  affected  by,  181  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of, 
182. 

Dicrocollium  pancreaticum,  226. 
Diphtheria,  138;  in  human  beings  and 
animals,    138  ;    of   birds,    138 ;    of 
fowls    due    to    gregariiice,    139  ;    of 
calves,  139,  142  ;  microbes  of,  138, 
139  ;  lesions  of,  138,  140  ;  inspection 
in  the  case  of,  139,  140. 
Discoloration,  post-mortem,  46. 
Diseases,  bacterial,  79  ;  due  to  animal 
parasites,     187 ;      unclassed,     270 ; 
characterised  by  suppuration,  122. 


Distoma  htematobium,  231. 
,,        hepaticum,  225. 
,,        lanceolatum,  225. 
Distomatosis,  224  ;  animals  affected  by, 
224  ;  parasites  of,  224-225  ;   lesions 
of,  225,  230  ;  inspection  in  the  case 
of,  230. 

Echinococcus  multilocularis,  216;  sco- 
lices  of,  217  ;  lesions 
caused  by,  217-220  ; 
inspection  in  the  case 
of,  220. 

,,  racemosus,  216. 

,,  veterinorum,  214  ;  animals 

affected  by,  214. 

Echinorhynchus  gigas,  246  ;  lesions 
caused  by,  247  ;  inspection  in  case 
of,  247. 

Eczema  epizootica,  156. 
Endocarditis,  70. 
Erysipelas  of  swine,  149. 
Eustrongylus  gigas,  249. 

Fat,  infiltration   by,  44  ;  influence  of 

food  on,  60. 
Fatigue,  56. 
Fatty  degeneration,  48. 
Favus,  184  ;  parasite  of,  184  ;  lesions 

of,  184,  185. 
Fever,  flesh  in,  53  ;  malignant  catarrhal, 

163  ;  splenic,  165  ;  Texas,  186. 
Fish  poisoning,  281. 
Flesh  of  horse,  27  ;  tests  for,  28,  29. 
,,      of    young    animals,",  effects    of 

eating,  "21 . 

,,  recognition  of,  in  the  different 
sexes  and  species,  26-32  ; 
odour  sui  generis  in,  26,  30, 
31. 

,,  in  fever,  53. 
Fluke  disease,  224. 
Food,  influence  of,  on  flesh,  60. 

,,  poisoning  in  man,  274  ;  symp- 
toms of,  277  ;  treatment  of, 
278. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease,  156  ;  animals 
affected  by,  156  ;    lesions   of,    156  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of,  157. 
Fowl  cholera,   179  ;  birds  affected  by, 
179  ;  microbe  of,  179  ;  lesions 
of,    180  ;    inspection    in    the 
case  of,  180,  181. 

,,  diphtheria  of,  due  to  grcgarince, 
139. 


INDEX 


293 


GANGRENE,    see  necrosis ;    traumatic, 

168. 

General  pathological  conditions,  44-61. 
Gid,  221. 
Glanders,    116  ;    animals   affected  by, 

116  ;    microbe  of,  116  ;  lesions  of, 

117  ;  Widal  reaction  with  the  serum 
from  cases  of,  121  ;  inspection  in  the 
case  of,  121. 

Grouse  disease,  179. 

Hcematoidin,  pigmentation  by,  45. 

Heart  of  ox  and  horse,  30. 

Hog  cholera,  145. 

Hoose,    249 ;    parasites    of,    249-250  ; 

lesions   of,    250-255 ;   inspection   in 

the  case  of,  255. 
Horse  pox,  159. 
HypodcrniQ;  bo  vis,  261. 
Hydrophobia,  see  Rabies. 

INFILTRATIONS,  44-49 ;  by  fat,  44  ; 
by  pigment,  45-46. 

Inflammatory  diseases,  67  ;  inspection 
in  the  case  of,  71. 

Inspection  of  abattoirs,  19  ;  methods 
of,  19 ;  of  living  animals,  19 ;  of 
dead  animals,  20,  21 ;  of  chilled 
meat,  22 ;  of  frozen  meat,  22  ;  of 
salted  or  pickled  meat,  22 ;  of  flesh 
preserved  by  chemical  agents,  23  ; 
of  flesh  from  animals  suffering  from 
diseased  conditions,  see  sections  on 
the  various  diseases  ;  by  microscopic 
examination,  32. 

Insects,  255. 

Ixodidse,  265  ;  lesions  caused  by,  265  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of,  266. 

JOINT-ILL,  128. 

KIDNEYS  of  ox,  sheep,  horse,  and  pig, 
30. 

LARVA;  of  distomata  in  muscle,  242. 

Leucocythpemia,  74  ;  animals  affected 
by,  74  ;  lesions  of,  74-76  ;  inspec- 
tion in  the  case  of,  76. 

Lipoma,  49. 

Liver,  of  ox,  horse,  and  sheep,  30  ; 
necrosis  in,  143. 

Lockjaw,  see  Tetanus. 

Loodiana  disease,  165. 

Louping  111,  271  ;  inspection  in  the 
case  of,  272. 


Lousiness,  263  ;  inspection  in  the  case 

of,  265. 

Lupinosis,  228. 
Lutein,  pigmentation  by,  45. 

MAGGOTS,  inspection  in  the  case  of,  263. 
Malignant  catarrh  of  the  ox,  163  ;  mi- 
crobes    of,    163  ; 
lesions    of,    163, 
164  ;     inspection 
in  the  case  of,  164. 
,,        of  sheep,  164,  165. 
,,         oedema,  168. 
,,         parturient  fever  in  ewes,  see 

Septic  Metritis. 
,,         pustule,  see  Anthrax. 
Mammitis,  132  ;   animals  affected  by, 
132 ;  microbes  of,  132  ;  gangrenous, 
132;  lesions  of,    132-134;    tuber- 
culous,   99  ;  inspection   in  the  case 
of,  134. 

Mange,  255  ;  animals  affected  by,  256  ; 
parasites  of,    256  -  258  ;   search  for 
the  parasites  of,  258  ;  lesions  of,  259- 
261  ;  inspection  in  the  case  of,  261. 
Measles,    197 ;    animals    affected    by, 
197  ;    parasites    of,    197, 
201  ;  infection  of  animals 
and    human    beings    by, 
201  ;    statistics    of,    202  ; 
lesions  of,  204-207  ;  effects 
of  cooking   and   pickling 
on  parasites  of,  208  ;  in- 
spection in  the  case   of, 
207-210. 

of  sheep,  197,  213. 
Melanin,  pigmentation  by,  45. 
Metritis,  septic,  135  ;  animals  affected 
by,  135  ;   lesions  of,  135  ;  microbes 
of,  135  ;  serous  membranes  in  cases 
of,  136  ;  lung  complications  of,  137  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of,  137. 
Microscopic    examinations,     methods, 
freezing,     fixing,     section    cutting, 
hardening,       teasing,       imbedding, 
mounting  cover-glass   preparations, 
staining,  decalcifying  reagents,  32-43. 
Milk  fever,  270  ;  inspection  in  the  case 

of,  270,  271.       • 
,,    sickness,  279. 
Mouldy  flesh,  66. 
Murrain,  171. 

Muscle,  tuberculosis  of,  101  ;  juice 
experiments  on  animals,  104,  105  ; 
distomata  in,  230. 


294 


INDEX 


NAGANA  disease,  188. 

Navel-Ill,  128  ;  animals  affected  by, 
129  ;  lesions  of,  129. 

Necrosis,  49. 

,,  bacterial,  142  ;  animals  af- 
fected by,  142  ;  microbes 
of,  143  ;  lesions  of,  143  ; 
of  liver,  142-145  ;  inspec- 
tion in  the  case  of,  145. 

Nematodes,  232. 

Neoplasms,  49-53. 

Nephritis,  70. 

ODOUR,  of  species  and  sex,  26  ;  of  flesh 
in  choked  animals,  55 ;  due  to  drugs, 
58  ;  due  to  ascarides,  245. 

(Edema,  malignant,  168  ;  animals  af- 
fected by,  169 ;  microbe  of,  169  ; 
lesions  of,  169  ;  inspection  in  the 
case  of,  169 ;  bacillus  of,  in  the 
intestines,  65,  169. 

(Esophagastoma  columbianum,  247  ; 
lesions  caused  by,  247,  248  ;  inspec- 
tion in  the  case  of,  249. 

Oestrus  ovis,  261. 

Organs,  difference  referable  to  species, 
29,  30. 

Osteitis,  71. 

Osteo-malacia,  273. 

Osteo-porosis,  272  ;  inspection  in  the 
case  of,  273. 

PARASITES,  diseases  caused  by  animal, 
186. 

Parturient  fever  in  ewes,  135. 

Pentastoma  denticulatum,  266 ; 
animals  affected  by,  266 ;  lesions 
caused  by,  267  ;  inspection  in  the 
case  of,  268. 

Pericarditis,69;epizooticofturkeys,179. 

Peritonitis,  69. 

Physic,  effects  of,  on  flesh,  58. 

Phosphorescent  meat,  65. 

Pigment,  infiltration  by,  45. 

Plague,  see  Cattle  Plague  and  Con- 
tagious Pneumonia  of  Swine. 

Pleurisy,  68. 

Pneumonia,  68  ;  contagious,  of  swine, 
152  ;  contagious  pleuro-,  153  ;  septic, 
155  (see  Septic  Metritis) ;  in  swine 
fever,  148  ;  parasitic,  249. 

Pneumo-pericarditis  of  turkeys,  179. 

Poisoning,  by  arsenic,  carbolic  acid, 
creasote,  irritants,  lead,  phosphorus, 
strychnine,  58-60. 


Poisons,  bacterial,  63  ;  ptomaines,  63, 
276  ;  effects  of  cooking  on,  64  ;  in 
food,  274. 

Post-mortem,  discoloration,  46  ;  changes 
in  flesh,  62. 

Pox,  159. 

Protozoa,  186. 

Pseudoleukaimia,  74. 

Pseudotuberculosis,  bacterial,  108  ; 
animals  affected  with,  108  ;  microbes 
of,  110  ;  lesions  of,  110  ;  inspection 
in  the  case  of,  110. 

Psoroptes,  257. 

Psorospermia,  188-192. 

Pthiriasis,  263. 

Ptomaines,  63,  276. 

Putrefaction,  63. 

Pyaemia,  124  ;  umbilical,  128. 

Pyo-pericardium,  123. 

Pyo-thorax,  123. 

QUARTER  ILL,  171. 

RABIES,    177 ;    animals    affected    by, 

177  ;  lesions  of,  177,  178  ;  inspection 

in  the  case  of,  173. 
Rainey's  corpuscles,  190,  242. 
Red  braxy,  173. 

,,    water,  77. 
Rickets,  272  ;  inspection  in   the  case 

of,  272. 

Rinderpest,  see  Cattle  Plague. 
Ringworm,  182  ;  inspection  in  case  of, 

185. 

Rot,  see  Distomatosis. 
Rouget  du  yore,,  149. 
Rupture  of  cesophagus,  55. 

SARCOCYSTIS,  189. 

Sarcoma,  51. 

Sarcoptes,  256. 

Sarcosporidise,  188  ;    animals  affected 

by,    189;    lesions   caused   by,    191; 

inspection  in  the  case  of,  192. 
Scab  in  sheep,  255. 
Schwcineseuche,  152. 
Scolices,  seeEchinococcus,  Ccenurus,  and 

Cysticercus. 
Scour,  see  Diarrhoea. 
Septic  pneumonia,  see  Septic  Metritis. 
Sheep  pox,  see  Variola. 
Slink  veal,  26. 
Statutory  provisions  in  regard  to  the 

duties  of  Meat   Inspectors,    14-18  ; 

for    England    and   Wales,    14 ;    for 


INDEX 


295 


London,    14,  15  ;   for   Ireland,  14  ; 
for  Scotland,  16,  17  ;  penalties,  17, 
18  ;  sale  of  horse  flesh,  18  ;  qualifi- 
cations of  Inspectors,  16,  18,  32. 
Sterilisation  of  knives,  22. 
Strangles,  129  ;  streptococcus  of,  129. 
Striking,  171. 
Strongylus  cervicornis,  224. 
Strongylus    rufescens,    filaria,    para- 

doxus,  249,  250. 
Sturdy,  221. 
Suffocation,  56. 

Suppuration,  diseases  characterised 
by,  122  ;  animals  affected  by,  122  ; 
the  microbes  of,  122  ;  lesions  of, 
123  ;  blood  stream  infection  in,  123  ; 
in  the  organs,  124-128  ;  inspection 
in  the  case  of,  129. 
Surra,  188. 

Swine,  contagious  pneumonia  of,  152. 
,,       Erysipelas,    149  ;    the  microbe 
of,    150  ;    lesions    of,    150  ; 
relations  of  urticaria  to,  150  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of,  151  ; 
cardiac  lesions  of,  151. 
,,       fever,    145  ;    animals    affected, 
145  ;    the    microbe  of,   146  ; 
lesions  of,  146-148;  lung  com- 
plications of,  148  ;  inspection 
in   the  case  of,  149  ;  applica- 
tion of  Contagious  Diseases  of 
Animals  Act  to,  149. 
,,      plague,  152. 
Symbiotes,  257. 


caenurus,  see  Sturdy. 
,,       denticulata,  223. 

effects  of,  224. 
,,       expansa,  223. 
,,       maryinata,      see      Cysticercus 

tenuicollis. 

,,       saginata,  see  Measles. 
,,       serialis,    see    Cysticercus   seri- 

alis. 
,,       serrata,    see    Cysticercus  pisi- 

formis. 

,,       solium,  see  Measles. 
Tetanus,    175  ;    animals    affected    by, 
175  ;  microbe  of,   175,  176  ;  lesions 
of,   176  ;  inspection  in  the  case  of, 
176. 

Texas  fever,  182  ;  animals  affected  by, 
186  ;  parasite  of,   186,  187  ;  lesions 


of,  187  ;  inspection  in  the  case  of, 
188. 

Ticks,  265. 

Tinea  tonsurans,~182  ;  lesions  of,  183, 
184. 

Tongue,  tuberculosis  of,  102  ;  of  horse 
and  ox,  29. 

Toxalbumins,  276. 

Traumatic,  see  Wounds  ;  pericarditis, 
125  ;  gangrene,  168. 

Trematodes,  224. 

Trichinosis,  233 ;  animals  affected  by 
and  frequency  of,  233-236  ;  parasite 
of,  236;  Cumberland  outbreak  of, 
236-238  ;  infection  of  animals  and 
human  beings  with,  236-238 ; 
lesions  of,  239-242 ;  effects  of  cook- 
ing, salting,  and  smoking  on  flesh 
affected  with,  242-244  ;  inspection  in 
Ihe  case  of,  242-245  ;  in  man,  280. 

Trypanosoma  evansi,  188. 

Tse-tse  fly  disease,  188. 

Tuberculosis,  79 ;  animals  affected 
with,  80  ;  statistics  of,  from  abat- 
toirs, 82 ;  relative  frequency  of, 
in  the  various  organs,  83  ;  bacillus 
of,  84  ;  indentity  of,  in  man  and 
animals,  84-86 ;  lesions  of,  86 ; 
differential  diagnosis  of,  89 ;  paths 
of  infection  in,  90  ;  of  the  various 
organs,  93-103  ;  danger  arising  from 
ingestion  of  meat  from  cases  of,  103  ; 
inspection  in  the  case  of,  105  ;  re- 
commendations of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission on,  107  ;  in  tripe,  108 ; 
sterilisation  of  knives  used  in  cases 
of,  108  ;  generalisation  of,  91  ;  signs 
of  generalisation  of,  106  ;  in  muscle, 
101. 

UNCLASSED  diseases,  270. 

Urticaria,  77 ;  lesions  of,  78  ;  inspec- 
tion in  the  case  of,  78  ;  relation 
of,  to  swine  erysipelas,  150. 

VARIOLA,  159  ;  animals  affected  with, 
159  ;  lesions  of,159;  inspec- 
tion in  the  case  of,  160. 
,,        ovina,  160. 

Veal,  blown,  22  ;  sour,  27. 

WARBLES,  261. 

Wool  sorters'  disease,  see  Anthrax. 


WILLIAM   R.  JENKINS' 

VETERINARY  BOOKS 

1901 


(*)  Single  asterisk  designates  New  Books. 
(**)  Double  asterisk  designates  Recent  Publications. 


ANDERSON.  "Vice  in  the  Horse"  and  other  papers 
on  Horses  and  Biding.  By  E.  L.  Anderson.  Demy, 
8vo,  cioth 2  00 

—  "  How  to  Ride  and  School  a  Horse."  With  a  System 
of  Horse  Gymnastics.  By  Edward  L.  Anderson. 
Or.  8vo  . .  . .  1  00 


ARMSTEAD.     "The  Artistic  Anatomy  of  the  Horse." 

A  brief  description  of  the  various  Anatomical  Struc- 
tures which  may  be  distinguished  during  Life  through 
the  Skin,  By  Hugh  W.  Armstead,  M.D.,  F.R.C.S. 
With  illustrations  from  drawings  by  the  author. 
Gloth  oblong,  12|  x  10 3  75 

BACH.  "How  to  Judge  a  Horse."  A  concise  treatise 
as  to  its  Qualities  and  Soundness ;  Including  Bits  and 
Bitting,  Saddles  and  Saddling,  Stable  Drainage,  Driv- 
ing One  Horse,  a  Pair,  Four-in-hand,  or  Tandem,  etc. 
By  Captain  F.  W.  Bach.  12mo,  cloth,  fully  illustrated, 
$1  00;  paper 50 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


(*}BANHAM.  " Anatomical  and  Physiological  Model  of 
the  Horse."  Half  life  size.  Composed  of  super- 
posed plates,  colored  to  nature,  showing  internal 
organs,  muscles,  skeleton,  etc.,  mounted  on  strong 
boards,  with  explanatory  text.  By  George  A. 
Banham,  F.R.C.V.S.  Size  of  Model  38x41  in..  .10  00 

—  "  Tables  of  Veterinary  Posology  and  Therapeutics,"  with 
weights,  measures,  etc.  By  George  A.  Banham, 
F.R.C.V.S.  12mo,  cloth 1  00 

BAUCHER.  "Method  of  Horsemanship."  Including 
the  Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses 1  00 

(*)BELL.      "The  Veterinarian's  Call  Book  (Perpetual)." 

By  Roscoe  K.  Bell,  D.V.S.,  editor  of  the  American 
Veterinary  Review.  Revised  for  1901, 

A  visiting  list,  that  can  be  commenced  at  any  time 
and  used  until  full,  containing  much  useful  informa- 
tion for  the  student  and  the  busy  practitioner. 
Among  contents  are  items  concerning :  Veterinary 
Drugs;  Poisons;  Solubility  of  Drugs;  Composition  of 
Milk, Bile,  Blood,  Gastric  Juice,  Urine,  Saliva;  Respi- 
ration; Dentition;  Temperature,  etc.,  etc.  Bound  in 
flexible  leather,  with  flap  and  pocket 1  25 

(**)BRADLEY.      "  Outlines     of    Veterinary    Anatomy." 

By  O.  Charnock  Bradley,  Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Veterinary  Surgeons ;  Professor  of  Anatomy 
in  the  New  Veterinary  College,  Edinburgh. 

The  author  presents  the  most  important   facts  of 
veterinary  anatomy  in  as  condensed  a  form  as  possible, 
'    consistent  with  lucidity.     12mo. 

Complete  in  three  parts. 

PART  I. :      The  Limbs  (cloth) 1  25 

PABT  II. :     The  Trunk  (paper) 1  25 

PART  III. :    The  Head  and  Neck  (paper) 1  25 

THE  SET  COMPLETE  . .  . .  3  50 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  ISth  St.),  New  York. 


CADIOT.  "Roaring  in  Horses."  Its  Pathology  and 
Treatment.  This  work  represents  the  latest  develop- 
ment in  operative  methods  for  the  alleviation 
of  roaring.  Each  step  is  most  clearly  defined  by 
excellent  full-page  illustrations.  By  P.  J.  Cadiot, 
Professor  at  the  Veterinary  School,  Alfort.  Trans. 
Thos.  J.  Watt  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S.,  etc.  Cloth 75 

—  "  Exercises  in  Equine  Surgery."  By  P.  J.  Cadiot. 
Translated  by  Prof.  A.  W.  Bitting,  M.D.,V.S. ;  edited 
by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.V.S.  8vo,  cloth,  illug. 
trated  . ,  ....  2  50 


(*)— 4i  A  Treatise  on  Veterinany  Therapeutics  of  the  Domestic 
Animals."  By  P.J.  Cadiot  and  J.  Alvary.  Translated 
by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.,V.S.  2  Parts  ready. 

Part  I,  Vol.  I,  8vo,  93  pages,  45  illustrations 1  00 

Part  II,  Vol.,  I,  8vo,  96  pages 1  CO 

(Part  Illy  in  Preparation). 


(*)CHAPMAN.  "Manual  of  the  Pathological  Treatment 
of  Lameness  in  the  Horse,"  treated  solely  by 
mechanical  means.  By  George  T.  Chapman.  8vo, 
cloth,  124  pages ' 200 


CHAUVEAU.  "The  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the 
Domesticated  Animals."  By  A.  Chauveau.  New 
edition,  translated,  enlarged  and  entirely  revised  by 
George  Fleming,  F.K.C.V.S.  8vo.  cloth  with  586 
Illustrations .6  25 


CLARKE.       "Chart   of  the   Feet   and    Teeth   of  Fossil 
Horses."    By  W.  H.  Clarke 25 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


CLEMENT.  u  Veterinary  Post  Mortem  Examina- 
tions." By  A.  W.  Clement,  V.S.  Records  of 
autopsies,  to  be  of  any  value,  should  accurately 
represent  the  appearances  of  the  tissues  and  organs 
so  that  a  diagnosis  might  be  made  by  the  reader  were 
not  the  examiners'  conclusions  stated.  To  make  the 
pathological  conditions  clear  to  the  reader,  some 
definite  system  of  dissection  is  necessary.  The 
absence  in  the  English  language,  of  any  guide  in 
making  autopsies  upon  the  lower  animals,  induced 
Dr.  Clement  to  write  this  book,  trusting  that  it 
would  prove  of  practical  value  to  the  profession. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated 75 


CLEAVEL.AND.        "Pronouncing     Medical     Lexicon." 

Pocket  edition.    Cloth...  76 


COURTENAY.  "Manual  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and 
Surgery."  By  Edward  Courtenay,  V.  S.  Crown,  8vo, 
cloth..  ...2  75 


COX.        "  Horses  :     In    Accident    and    Disease."       The 

sketches  i  ntroduced  embrace  various  attitudes  which 
have  been  observed,  such  as  in  choking ;  the  disorders 
and  accidents  occurring  to  the  stomach  and  intestines ; 
affection  of  the  brain ;  and  some  special  forms  of  lame- 
ness, etc.  By  J.  Boalfe  Cox,  F.K.C.V.S.  8vo,  cloth, 
fully  illustrated 150 


CURTIS.      "Horses,    Cattle,    Sheep    and    Swine."     The 

origin,  history,  improvement,  description, characteris- 
tics, merits,  objections,  etc.  By  Geo.  W.  Curtis, 
M.S. A.  Superbly  illustrated.  Cloth,  $2  00;  half 
sheep,  $2.75 ;  half  morocco 3  5Q 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  ±8th  St.),  New  York. 


DDALRYMPLE.  "Veterinary  Obstetrics."  A  compen- 
dium for  the  use  of  advanced  students  and  Practi- 
tioners. By  W.  H.  Dalrymple,  M.  K.  C.  V.  S., 
principal  of  the  Department  of  Veterinary  Science  in 
the  Louisiana  State  University  and  A.  &  M.  College ; 
Veterinarian  to  the  Louisiana  State  Bureau  of 
Agriculture,  and  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations; 
Member  of  the  United  States  Veterinary  Medical 
Associations,  etc.  8vo,  cloth,  illus 2  50 

DALZIEL.  "  The  Fox  Terrier."  Illustrated.  (Monographs 
on  British  Dogs) .  By  Hugh  Dalziel 1  00 

—  "The  St.  Bernard."    Illustrated 1  00 

—  "The   Diseases  of  Dogs."      Their    Pathology,    Diagnosis 

and  Treatment,  with  a  dictionary  of  Canine  Materia 
Medica.  By  Hugh  Dalziel.  12mo,  cloth 80 

—  "Diseases  of  Horses."    12mo,  cloth 100 

—  "Breaking     and     Training       Dogs."       Being       concise 

directions  for  the  proper  education  of  dogs,  both 
for  the  field  and  for  companions.  Second  edi- 
tion, revised  and  enlarged.  Part  I,  by  Pathfinder: 
Part  II,  by  Hugh  Dalziel.  12mo,  cloth,  illus 2  60 

—  "The   Collie."    Its   History,    Points,    and    Breeding.     By 

Hugh  Dalziel.  Illustrated,  8vo,  cloth 1  00 

—  "The  Greyhound."   8vo,  cloth,  Illus 1  00 

DANA.  "Tables  in  Comparative  Physiology."  By  Prof. 
C.  L.  Dana,  M.D 25 

DANCE.  "Veterinary  Tablet."  Folded  in  cloth  case. 
The  tablet  of  A.  A.  Dance  is  a  synopsis  of  the  diseases 
of  horses,  cattle  and  dogs,  with  the  causes,  symptoms 
and  cures 75 

DAY.  "The  Race-horse  in  Training."  By  Wm.  Day, 
8vo  . .  3  50 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  Jf2.  Jenkins 


(*)DE  BR  UIN.  "  Bovine  Obstetrics."  By  M.  G.  De  Bruin, 
Instructor  of  Obstetrics  at  the  State  Veterinary 
School  in  Utrecht.  Translated  by  W.  E.  A.  Wyraan, 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Science  at  Clemson  A.  &  M. 
College,  and  Veterinarian  to  the  South  Carolina 
Experiment  Station. 
8vo,  cloth,  382  pages,  77  illustrations 5  00 

Synopsis  of  the  Essential  Features  of  Work. 

1.  Authorized  translation. 

2.  The  only  obstetrical  work  which  is  up  to  date. 

3.  Written  by  Europe's  leading  authority    on    the 

subject. 

4.  Written  by  a  man  who  has  practiced  the  art  a 

lifetime. 

5.  Written  by  a  man  who,  on  account  of  his  eminence 

as  bovine  practitioner  and  teacher  of  obstetrics, 
was  selected  by  Prof.  Dr.  Frohner  and  Prof.  Dr. 
Bayer  (Berlin  and  Vienna),  to  discuss  bovine 
obstetrics,  both  practically  and  scientifically. 

6.  The  only  work  containing  a  thorough  differential 

diagnosis  of  ante  and  post  partum  diseases. 

7.  The  only  work  doing  justice  to  modern  obstetrical 

surgery  and  therapeutics. 

8.  Written  by  a  man  whose  practical  suggestions 

revolutionized  the  teaching  of  veterinary  obste- 
trics even  in  the  great  schools  of  Europe. 

9.  The  only  work  dealing  fully  with  the  now  no 

longer  obscure  contagious  and  infectious  dis- 
eases of  calves. 

10.  Absolutely  original  and  no  compilation. 

11.  The  only  work  dealing  fully  with  the  difficult 

problem  of  teaching  obstetrics  in  the  colleges. 

12.  The  only  work  where  the  practical  part  is  not 

overshadowed  by  theory. 
See  also  ««  Wyman" 


861-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  ±8th  St.),  New  York. 


(^DOLLAR.  "A  Surgical  Operating  Table  for  the 
Horse."  By  Jno.  A.  W.  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S 0  90 

(*)—  "Clinical  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery."  By  .John 
A.  W.  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S 5  25 

.  .  .  This  work,  containing  as  it  does  the  ripe  exper- 
ience of  the  author,  who  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
foremost  surgeons  and  clinicians  of  the  day,  contains  a 
vast  amount  of  exact  scientific  information  of  the  utmost 
value  to  the  busy  workaday  practitioner,  while  for  the 
student  of  either  human  or  comparative  medicine,  no 
better  book  could  be  placed  in  their  hands,  that  will  give 
them  a  clear  insight  into  the  many  intricate  problems 
with  which  they  are  daily  confronted.  .  .  .—American 
Veterinary  Review,  New  York,  August,  1901. 

(*)-  "A  Hand-book  of  Horse-Shoeing,"  with  introductory 
chapters  on  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
horse's  foot.  By  Jno.  A.  W.  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S., 
translator  and  editor  of  Holler's  "  Veterinary  Sur- 
gery," "An  Atlas  of  Veterinary  Surgical  Operations," 
etc. ;  with  the  collaboration  of  Albert  Wheatley, 
F.R.C.V.S.  8vo,  cloth,  433  pp.,  4C6  illustrations  .  .4.75 


DUN.     "  Veterinary  Medicines."    By  Finlay  Dun,  V.S.    New 
revised  and  enlarged  English  edition.  8vo,  cloth. 3  75 


DWYER.  <'  Seats  and  Saddles."  Bits  and  Bitting, 
Draught  and  Harness  and  the  Prevention  and  Cure  of 
Restiveness  in  Horses.  By  Francis  Dwyer.  Illus- 
trated. 1  vol.,  12mo,  cloth,  gilt 1  50 


FLEMING.  "Veterinary  Obstetrics."  Including  the 
Accidents  and  Diseases  incident  to  Pregnancy,  Parturi- 
tion, and  the  early  Age  in  Domesticated  Animals. 
By  Geo.  Fleming,  F.R.C.V.S.  With  212  illustrations. 
New  edition  revised,  226  illustrations,  758  pages.  ..6  25 
773  pages,  8vo,  cloth  (old  edition) 3  50 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  it.  Jenkins 


FLEMING.  "Operative  Veterinary  Surgery."  Part  I,  by 
Dr.  Geo.  Fleming,  M.R.C.V.S.  This  valuable  work, 
the  most  practical  treatise  yet  issued  on  the 
subject  in  the  English  language,  is  devoted  to  the 
common  operations  of  Veterinary  Surgery;  and  the 
concise  descriptions  and  directions  of  the  text  are  illus- 
trated with  numerous  wood  engravings.  8vo,cloth.2  75 
Second  volume  in  preparation. 

—  "Tuberculosis."    From  a  Sanitary  and  Pathological  Point 

of  View.    By  Geo.  Fleming,  F.E.C.V.S 26 

—  "The  Contagious  Diseases  of  Animals."    Their  influence  on 

the  wealth  and  health  of  nations.    12mo,  paper.. .  .25 

—  "Human  and  Animal  Variola."    A  Study  in  Comparative 

Pathology.     Paper 25 

—  "Animal     Plagues."         Their      History,     Nature,     and 

Prevention.  By  George  Fleming,  F.  B.  C.  V.  S.,  etc. 
First  Series.  8vo,  cloth,  $6.00;  Second  Series. 
8vo,  cloth 3  00 

—  "  Roaring    in     Horses."         By    Dr.    George     Fleming, 

F.R.C.V.S.  A  treatise  on  this  peculiar  disorder 
of  the  Horse,  indicating  its  method  of  treatment 
and  curability.  8vo,  cloth,  with  col.  plates 1  50 


FLEMING-NEUMANN.  "Parasites  and  Parasitic 
Diseases  of  the  Domesticated  Animals."  A  work 
which  the  students  of  human  or  veterinary  medi- 
cine, the  sanitarian,  agriculturist  or  breeder  or  rearer 
of  animals,  may  refer  for  full  information  regarding 
the  external  and  internal  Parasites — vegetable  and 
animal — which  attack  various  species  of  Domestic 
Animals.  A  Treatise  by  L.  G.  Neumann,  Professor 
at  the  National  Veterinary  School  of  Toulouse. 
Translated  and  edited  by  George  Fleming,  C,  B.,  L.L. 
D..F.R.C.V.S.  873  pages,  365  illustrations,  cloth.7  50 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York. 


GKESSWELL.  "The  Diseases  and  Disorders  of  the 
Ox."  By  George  Gresswell,  B.A.  With  Notes  by 
James  B.  Gresswell.  Crown,  8vo,  cloth,  illus....3  60 

—  "  Diseases  and  Disorders  of  the  Horse."    By  Albert,  James 

B.  and  George  Gresswell.  Crown,  8vo,  illus., cloth.  1  75 

—  "  Veterinary     Pharmacology     and     Therapeutics."     By 

James  B.  Gresswell,  F.K.C.V.S.    16mo,  cloth  . .  .1  60 

—  "  The   Bovine   Prescriber."     For    the    use   of    Veterina- 

rians and  Veterinary  Students.  By  James  B.  and 
Albert  Gresswell,  M.R.C. V.S  Cloth 75 

—  "  The  Equine  Hospital  Prescriber."    For  the  use  of  Veter- 

inary Practitioners  and  Students.  By  Drs.  James 
B.  and  Albert  Gresswell,  M.R.C. V.S.  Cloth 75 

—  "Veterinary    Pharmacopeia,      Materia      Medica      and 

Therapeutics."  By  George  and  Charles  Gresswell, 
'with  descriptions  and  physiological  actions  of  medi- 
cines. By  Albert  Gresswell.  Crown,  8vo,  cloth.. 2  75 

-  Manual  of  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Equine  Medicine." 

By  James  B.  Gresswell,  F.R.C.V.S.,  and  Albert 
Gresswell,  M. E.G. V.S. ,  second  edition,  enlarged, 
8vo,  cloth. i 2  75 


GOTTHEIL.        "A    Manual    of    General     Histology." 

By  Wm.  S.  Gottheil,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Pathology  in 
the  American  Veterinary  College,  New  York;  etc.,  etc. 
Histology  is  the  basis  of  the  physician's  art,  as 
Anatomy  is  the  foundation  of  the  surgeon's  science. 
Only  by  knowing  the  processes  of  life  can  we  under- 
stand the  changes  of  disease  and  the  action  of  remedies ; 
as  the  architect  must  know  his  building  materials,  so 
must  the  practitioner  of  medicine  know  the  intimate 
structure  of  the  body.  To  present  this  knowledge  in 
an  accessible  and  simple  form  has  been  the  author's 
task.  870.,  cloth,  148  pages,  fully  illustrated.. .  1  00 


iO  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  &.  Jenkins 


HASSLOCH.  "  A  Coinpend  of  Veterinary  Materia  Medica 
and  Therapeutics."  By  Dr.  A.  C.  Hassloch,  V.S., 
Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,  and 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Dentistry  at  the  New  York 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  and  School  of  Compa- 
rative Medicine,  N.  Y.  12mo,  cloth,  225  pages  .  .1  50 


HEATLEY.  "  The  Stock  Owner's  Guide."  A  handy  Medi- 
cal Treatise  for  every  man  who  owns  an  ox  or  cow. 
By  George  S.  Heatley,  M.R.C.V.  12mo,  cloth..  .1  25 

—  "The   Horse   Owner's   Safeguard."       A    handy   Medical 

Guide  for  every  Horse  Owner.     12mo,  cloth  1  50 

—  "  Practical  Veterinary  Remedies."  12mo,  cloth 1  00 


HILL.    "The   Management    and    Diseases    of   the    Dog." 

Containing  full  instructions  for  Breeding,  Rearing  and 
Kenneling  Dogs.  Their  Different  Diseases.  How  to 
detect  and  how  to  cure  them.  Their  Medicines,  and 
the  doses  in  which  they  can  be  safely  administered. 
By  J.  Woodroffe  Hill,  F.R.C.V.S.  12mo,  cloth,  extra 
fully  illustrated 2  00 

(*)-  "The  Diseases  of  the  Cat."    By  J.  Woodroffe  Hill,  F.R. 

C. V.S.     12mo,  cloth,  illustrated 1  25 

Written  from  the  experience  of  many  years'  prac- 
tice and  close  pathological  research  into  the  maladies 
to  which  our  domesticated  feline  friends  are  liable — a 
subject  which  it  must  be  admitted  has  not  found  not 
prominence  in  veterinary  literature  to  which  it  is 
undoubtedly  entitled. 

HINEBAUCH.    "Veterinary  Dental  Surgery."     For  the 

use  of  Students,  Practitioners  and  Stockmen. 

12mo,  cloth,  illustrated 2  00 

Sheep. 2  76 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York.  11 


HO  ARE.  "A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Therapeutics  and 
Pharmacology."  By  E.  Wallis  Hoare,  F.R.C.V.S. 
12rno,  cloth,  560  pages 2  75 

"Deserves  a  good  place  in  the  libraries  of  all  veterina- 
rians. *  *  *  Cannot  help  but  be  of  the  greatest  assist- 
ance to  the  young  veterinarian  and  the  every  day  busy 
practitioner."— American  Veterinary  Review. 


(*}HOBDAY.  "  Canine  and  Feline  Surgery."  By  Frederick 
T.  G.  Hobday,  F.R.C.V.S,,  Professor  in  Charge  of  the 
Free  Out-Patients'  Clinique  at  the  Royal  Veterinary 
College,  London,  The  work  contains  76  illustrations 
in  the  text.  Demy  8vo,  152  pp.,  full-bound  cloth  .2  00 


(•^HUNTING.  The  Art  of  Horse-shoeing.  A  manual 
for  Farriers.  By  William  Hunting,  F.R.C.V.S.,  edi- 
tor of  the  Veterinary  Record,  ex-president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons.  8vo,  cloth,  with 
nearly  100  illustrations 1  00 


(^JENKINS.    "  Model  of  the  Horse." 10  00 

(See  Banham). 


(~}KOBERT.  "Practical  Toxicology  for  Physicians  and 
Students."  By  Professor  Dr.  Rudolph  Kobert, 
Medical  Director  of  Dr.  Brehmer's  Sanitarium  for 
Pulmonary  Diseases  at  Goerbersdorf  in  Silesia  (Prus- 
sia), late  Director  of  the  Pharmacological  Institute, 
Dorpat,  Russia.  Translated  and  edited  by  L.  H. 
Friedburg,  Ph.D.  Authorized  Edition.  8vo,  cloth. 2  50 


KOCH.     "Etiology  of  Tuberculosis."     By  Dr.  R.  Koch. 
Translated  by  T.  Saure.    8vo,  cloth 1  00 


12  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


KEATING.  "A  New  Unabridged  Pronouncing  Diction- 
ary of  Medicine."  By  John  M.  Keating,  M.D.,  LL.D., 
Henry  Hamilton  and  others.  A  voluminous  and 
exhaustive  hand-book  of  Medical  and  scientific 
terminology  with  Phonetic  Pronunciation,  Accentu- 
ation, Etymology,  etc.  With  an  appendix  containing 
important  tables  of  Bacilli,  Microcci  Leucomaines, 
Ptomaines ;  Drugs  and  Materials  used  in  Antiseptic 
Surgery;  Poisons  and  their  antidotes;  Weights  and 
Measures;  Themometer  Scales;  New  Officinal  and 
TJnofficinal  Drugs,  etc.,  etc.  8vo,  818  pages 5  00 

LAMBERT.       "The      Germ     Theory       of      Disease." 

Bearing  upon  the  health  and  welfare  of  man  and  the 
domesticated  animals.  By  James  Lambert,  F.R.C.V.S. 
8vo.  paper 25 


LAW.  "Farmers'  Veterinary  Adviser."  A  Guide  to  the 
Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  By  Prof.  James  Law.  Illus.,  8vo,  cloth. 5  00 


DLEGGE.  "Cattle  Tuberculosis."  A  Practical  Guide 
to  the  Farmer,  Butcher  and  Meat  Inspector.  By  T.M, 
Legge,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.P.H.,  Secretary  of  the  Koyal 
Commission  on  Tuberculosis,  1896-98;  author  of 
"  Public  Health  in  European  Capitals,"  and  "  Harold 
Sessions,  F.B.C.V.S."  Cloth 1  00 


LIA  UTARD.  "  Manual  of  Operative  Veterinary  Surgery  " 

By  A.  Liautard,  M.  D.,  V.M.,  Principal  and  Professor 
of  Anatomy,  Surgery,  Sanitary  Medicine  and  Juris- 
prudence in  the  American  Veterinary  College; 
Chevalier  du  Merite  Agricole  de  France,  Honorary 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons 
(London),  etc.,  etc.  8vo,  cloth,  786  pages  and  nearly 
600 illustrations..  ..6  00 


851-353  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York.          18 


LIAUTARD.    "Median  Neurotomy  in  the  Treatment  of 
Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

By  C.  Pellerin,  late  Kepetitor  of  Clinic  and  Surgery  to 
the  Alfort  Veterinary  School.  Translated  with  addi- 
tional facts  relating  to  it,  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D., 
V.M. 

Having  rendered  good  results  when  performed  by 
himself,  the  author  believes  the  operation,  which 
consists  in  dividing  the  cubito-plantar  nerve  and  in 
excising  a  portion  of  the  peripherical  end,  the  means 
of  improving  the  conditions,  and  consequently  the 
values  of  many  apparently  doomed  animals.  Agricul- 
ture in  particular  will  be  benefited. 

The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  covers 
the  study  of  Median  Neurotomy  itself ;  the  second, 
the  exact  relations  of  the  facts  as  observed  by  the 
author.  8vo.,  boards 1  00 

—  "Animal    Castration."    A   concise  and   practical  Treatise 

on  the  Castration  of  the  Domestic  Animals.  The 
only  work  on  the  subject  in  the  English  language. 
Illustrated  with  forty-four  cuts.  12mo,  cloth. .  .2  00 

—  "Vade  Mecum   of  Equine   Anatomy/5     By  A.  Liautard, 

M.D.V.S.  Dean  of  the  American  Veterinary  College, 
12mo.  cloth.  New  edition,  with  illustrations 2  00 

-  "  Translation  of  Zundel  on  the  Horse's  Foot."  Cloth . .  2  00 

-  "  How  to  Tell   the   Age   of  the  Domestic  Animal."    Bj 

Dr.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.,  V.S.  Profusely  illustrated. 
12mo,  cloth 60 

—  "On     the    Lameness     of     Horses."      By    A.    Liautard, 

M.D.,V.S 2  50 

See  also  "CadioVs  Surgery." 

(*)— "A  Treatise  on  Veterinary  Therapeutics  of  the  Domestic 
Animals,"    (See  Cadiot,) 


14  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  JR.  Jenkins 


LONG.  "Book  of  the  Pig."  Its  selection,  Breeding, 
Feeding  and  Management.  8vo,  cloth 4  25 

(**)LOWE.  "Breeding  Racehorses  by  the  Figure 
System."  Compiled  by  the  late  C.  Bruce  Lowe. 
Edited  by  William  Allison,  "  The  Special  Commis- 
sioner," London  Sportsman,  Hon.  Secretary  Sporting 
League,  and  Manager  of  the  International  Horse 
Agency  and  Exchange.  With  numerous  fine  illustra- 
tions of  celebrated  horses.  Quarto,  cloth 7  50 


LUDLOW.  "  Science  in  the  Stable  ";  or  How  a  Horse  can 
be  Kept  in  Perfect  Health  and  be  Used  Without 
Shoes,  in  Harness  or  under  the  Saddle.  With  the 
Reason  Why,  Second  American  Edition.  Enlarged 
and  Exemplified.  By  Jacob  R.  Ludlow,  M.D.  Late 
Staff  Surgeon,  U.  S.  Army.  Paper,  166  pages 50 

LUPTON.  "Horses:  Sound  and  Unsound,"  with 
Law  relating  to  Sales  and  Warranty.  By  J.  Irvine 
Lupton,  F.R.C.V.S.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated 1  25 

—  *'  The  Horse."  As  he  Was,  as  he  Is,  and  as  he  Ought  to  Be. 
By  J.  I.  Lupton,  F.R.C.V.S.  Illus.,  Crown,  8vo.  .1  40 

MAGNER.  "  Facts  for  Horse  Owners."  By  D.  Magner. 
Upwards  of  1,000  pages,  illustrated  with  900  engrav- 
ings. 8vo,  leather  binding 7  50 

MAYHEW.        "The    Illustrated    Horse    Doctor."      An 

accurate  and  detailed  account  of  the  Various  Diseases 
to  which  the  Equine  Race  is  subject ;  together  with  the 
latest  mode  of  Treatment,  and  all  the  Requisite  Pre- 
scriptions written  in  plain  English.  By  E.  Edward 
Mayhew,  M.R.C.V.S.  Illustrated.  Entirely  new 
edition,  8vo,  cloth , 2  75 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48M  St.),  New  York,  15 


McBRIDE.        "Anatomical    Outlines    of    the     Horse." 

12rao,  cloth.     Reduced  to 1  50 


Me  COMBIE.  "Cattle  and  Cattle  Breeders."  Cloth 1  00 

M'FADYEAN.  "Anatomy  of  the  Horse."  A  Dis- 
section Guide.  By  J.  M.  M'Fadyean,  M.E.C.V.S. 
8vo,  cloth 5  50 

This  book  is  intended  for  Veterinary  students,  and 
offers  to  them  in  its  48  full-page  colored  plates  numer- 
ous other  engravings  and  excellent  text,  the  most 
valuable  and  practical  aid  in  the  study  of  Veterinary 
Anatomy,  especially  in  the  dissecting  room. 

—  "  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the   Domesticated  Animals." 

By  J.  M'Fadyean.     Profusely  illustrated,  and  to  be 
issued  in  two  parts. 

Part  I— Osteology,  ready.     Paper,  2.50;  cloth 2.75 

(Part  II  in  preparation.) 


MILLS.    "How  to    Keep    a    Dog    in     the    City."    By 

Wesley  Mills,  M.D.,  V.S.  It  tells  how  to  choose, 
manage,  house,  feed,  educate  the  pup,  how  to  keep  him 
clean  and  teach  him  cleanliness.  Paper 25 


MOSSELMAX-L1ENA  UX.       "  Veterinary     Microbio- 

logy."  By  Professors  Mosselman  and  Lienaux, 
Nat.  Veterinary  College,  Cureghem,  Belgium.  Trans- 
lated and  edited  by  E.  E.  Dinwiddie,  Professor  of 
Veterinary  Science,  College  of  Agriculture,  Arkansas 
State  University.  12mo,  cloth,  342  pages 2  00 


MLORETON.    "  On  Horse-breaking,"    12mo,  cl 50 


16  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


MOLLER.  "Operative  Veterinary  Surgery."  By  Profes- 
sor Dr.  H.  Moller,  Berlin.  Translated  and  edited 
from  the  2nd  edition,  enlarged  and  improved,  by 
John  A.  W.  Dollar,  M.K.C.S. 

Prof.  Holler's  work  presents  the  most  recent  and 
complete  exposition  of  the  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Veterinary  Surgery,  and  is  the  standard  text-book  on  the 
subject  throughout  Germany. 

Many  subjects  ignored  in  previous  treatises  on 
Veterinary  Surgery  here  receive  full  consideration, 
while  the  better  known  are  presented  under  new  and 
suggestive  aspects. 

As  Prof.  Moller's  work  represents  not  only  his 
own  opinions  and  practice,  but  those  of  the  best 
Veterinary  Surgeons  of  various  countries,  the  trans- 
lation cannot  fail  to  be  of  signal  service  to  American 
and  British  Veterinarians  and  to  Students  of  Veter- 
inary and  Comparative  Surgery. 
1  vol.,  8vo.  722  pages,  142  illustrations 5  25 


NO  CARD.  "  The  Animal  Tuberculoses,  and  their  Relation 
to  Human  Tuberculosis."  By  Ed.  Nocard,  Prof,  of  the 
Alfort  Veterinary  College.  Translated  by  H.  Scurfield, 

M.D.  Ed.,  Ph.  Camb.     12mo,  cloth,  143  pages 1  00 

Perhaps  the  chief  interest  to  doctors  of  human 
medicine  in  Professor  Nocard's  book  lies  in  the 
demonstration  of  the  small  part  played  by  heredity, 
and  the  great  part  played  by  contagion  in  the  propa- 
gation of  bovine  tuberculosis.  It  seems  not  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  same  is  the  case  for  human 
tuberculosis,  and  that,  if  the  children  of  tuberculosis 
parents  were  protected  from  infection  by  cohabitation 
or  ingestion,  the  importance  of  heredity  as  a  cauge  of 
the  disease,  or  even  of  the  predisposition  to  it,  would 
dwindle  away  into  insignificance. 

PEGLER,  "The  Book  of  tlie  Goat/'  12mo,  cloth 1  75 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York.         17 


PELLERIN.      "Median  Neuroloiuy    in    the  Treatment 
of  Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

By  C.  Pellerin,  late  repetitor  of  Clinic  and  Surgery  to 
the  Alfort  Veterinary  School.  Translated,  with  Addi- 
tional Facts  Relating  to  It,  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D., 

V.  M.    8vo,  boards,  illustrated 1  00 

See  also  "  Liautard." 


PETERS.  "  A  Tuberculous  Herd-Test  with  Tuber- 
culm."  By  Austin  Peters,  M.  K.  C.  V.  S.,  Chief 
Inspector  of  Cattle  for  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Health  during  the  winter  of  1892-93.  Pamphlet 25 


(*)PFEIFFER  -  WILLIAMS.  "  A  Course  of  Surgical 
Operations  for  Veterinary  Students  and  Practi- 
tioners." By  W.  Pfeiffer,  Assistant  in  the  Surgical 
Clinic  of  the  Veterinary  High  School  in  Berlin,  and 
W.  L.  Williams,  V.S.,  Professor  of  Surgery  in  the 
New  York  State  Veterinary  College,  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, Ithaca,  N.  Y. 
With  42  illustrations,  12mo,  cloth 1  25 

A  concise  description  of  the  more  common  major 
surgical  operations,  designed  as  a  laboratory  guide  in 
surgical  exercises  for  veterinary  students  and  as  a 
ready  reference  for  practitioners  in  surgical  opera- 
tions. Based  upon  a  translation  of  Dr.  Pfeiffer's 
"  Operations-Cursus,"  embodying  the  experience  of 
Dr.  Pfeiffer  and  Prof.  Dr.  Frohner  in  the  Berlin 
Veterinary  School.  With  numerous  annotations  there 
have  been  added  many  of  the  newer,  largely  distinc- 
tively American,  operations. 


REYNOLD.     "Breeding  and  Management    of    Draught 
Horses,"    8vo,  cloth 1  40 


18  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


KOBERGE.  "The  Foot  of  the  Horse,"  or  Lameness 
and  all  Diseases  of  the  Feet  traced  to  an  Unbalanced 
Foot  Bone,  prevented  or  cured  by  balancing  the  foot. 
By  David  Koberge.  8vo,  cloth 6  00 


(**)SEWEL1;.  "  The  Examination  of  Horses  as  to  Sound- 
ness  and  Selection  as  to  Purchase."  By  Edward 
Sewell,  M.E.C.V.S.L.  8vo,  paper 1  £0 

....  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  business  man  to 
know  something  of  the  elements  of  law,  and  nobody 
ought  either  to  buy  or  own  a  horse  who  does  not  know 
something  about  the  animal.  That  something  this  book 

gives,  and  gives  in  a  thoroughly  excellent  way 

Our  Animal  Friends,  November,  1898. 


SMITH.     "A   Manual   of  Veterinary   Physiology."     By 

Veterinary  Captain  F.  Smith,  M.R.C.V.S.     Author  of 
"A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene." 

Throughout  this  manual  the  object  has  been  to  con- 
dense the  information  as  much  as  possible.  The 
broad  facts  of  the  sciences  are  stated  so  as  to  render 
them  of  use  to  the  student  and  practitioner.  In  this 
second  edition— rewritten — the  whole  of  the  Nervous 
System  has  been  revised,  a  new  chapter  dealing  with 
the  Development  of  the  Ovum  has  been  added  together 
with  many  additional  facts  and  illustrations.  About 
one  hundred  additional  pages  are  given.  Second 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  with  additional  illus- 
trations  3  75 

—  "Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene."    2nd  edition,  revised. 
Crown,  8vo,  cloth 3  25 


"Veterinary  Anatomy."  Edited  by 
I.  Vaughan,  F.L.S.,  M.R.C.V.S.  New  edition  revised, 
with  several  hundred  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth, . .  .5  00. 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York. 


(**)SUSSDORF.     " Large  Colored  Wall  Diagrams."     By 

Prof.  Sussdorf,  M.D.  (of  Gottingen).  Text  translated 
by  Prof.  W.  Owen  Williams,  of  the  New  Veterinary 
College,  Edinburgh.  Size,  44  inches  by  30  inches. 

1.— Horse.  4.— Ox. 

2.— Mare.  5.— Boar  and  Sow. 

3.— Cow.  6.— Dog  and  Bitch. 

Showing  the  position  of  the  viscera  in  the  large 
cavities  of  the  body. 

Price,  unmounted 1  76  each 

"      mounted  on  linen,  with  roller. . . 3  50    " 


(**)VAN  MATER.  "  A  Text  Book  of  Veterinary  Oph- 
thalmology." By  George  G.  Van  Mater,  M.D., 
D.V.S.,  Professor  of  Ophthalmology  in  the  American 
Veterinary  College;  Oculist  and  Auristto  St.  Martha's 
Sanitarium  and  Dispensary;  Consulting  Eye  and  Ear 
Surgeon  to  the  Twenty-sixth  Ward  Dispensary ;  Eye 
and  Ear  Surgeon,  Brooklyn  Eastern  District  Dispen- 
sary, etc.  Illustrated  by  one  chromo  lithograph  plate 
and  seventy-one  engravings. 
8vo  cloth.  ..3  00 


VETERINARY      DIAGRAMS      in     Tabular      Form. 
Size,  28|  in.  x  22  inches.    Price  per  set  of  five 4  75 

No.  1.  "The  External  Form  and  Elementary  Ana- 
tomy of  the  Horse."  Eight  colored  illustrations — 
1.  External  regions ;  2.  Skeleton ;  3.  Muscles  (Superior 
Layer);  4.  Muscles  (Deep  Layer);  5.  Respiratory  Ap- 
paratus ;  6.  Digestive  Apparatus ;  7.  Circulatory  Ap- 
paratus ;  8.  Nerve  Apparatus ;  with  letter-press  descrip- 
tion   1  25 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


VETERINARY  DIAGRAMS. -Continued. 

No.  2.  "The  Age  of  Domestic  Animals."  Forty-two 
figures  illustrating  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  indicat- 
ing the  Age  of  the  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Dog,  with 
full  description 76 


No.  3.    "The  Unsoundness  and  Defects  of  the  Horse." 

Fifty  figures  illustrating— 1.  The  Defects  of  Confor- 
mation ;  2.  Defects  of  Position ;  3.  Infirmities  or  Signs 
of  Disease ;  4.  Unsoundnesses ;  6.  Defects  of  the  Foot ; 
with  full  description 75 


No.  4.    "The  Shoeing  of  the  Horse,  Mule  and  Ox." 

Fifty  figures  descriptive  of  the  Anatomy  and  Physio- 
logy of  the  Foot  and  of  Horse-shoeing 75 


No.  5.  "The  Elementary  Anatomy,  Points,  and  But- 
cher's Joints  of  the  Ox."  Ten  colored  illustrations 
—  1.  Skeleton;  2.  Nervous  System:  3.  Digestive 
System  (Right  Side) ;  4.  Respiratory  System  ;  6.  Points 
of  a  Fat  Ox ;  6.  Muscular  System  ;  7.  Vascular  System ; 
8.  Digestive  System  (Left  Side) ;  9.  Butcher's  Sections 
of  a  Calf;  10.  Butcher's  Sections  of  an  Ox ;  with  full 
description 1  25 


WALLEY.    "Four  Bovine  Scourges."    (Plouro-Pneumonia, 
Foot     and    Mouth      Disease,     Cattle    Plague    and 
Tubercle.)     With  an    Appendix    on    the  Inspection 
of  Live  Animals  and  Meat. 
Illustrated,  4to,  cloth 6  40 


8&1-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48«/i  St.),  tiew  York  2l 


WALLEY.    "A  Practical  Guide  to  Meat  Inspection."    By 

Thomas  Walley,  M.R.C.V.S.,  formerly  principal  of 
the  Edinburgh  Eoyal  (Dick)  Veterinary  College ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery,  etc.  Third 
Edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with  forty-five  colored 
illustrations,  12mo,  cloth 3  00 

(4th  edition  in  preparation.) 

An  experience  of  over  30  years  in  his  profession 
and  a  long  official  connection  (some  sixteen  years) 
with  Edinburgh  Abattoirs  have  enabled  the  author  to 
gather  a  large  store  of  information  on  the  subject, 
which  he  has  embodied  in  his  book.  Dr.  Walley's  opi- 
nions are  regarded  as  the  highest  authority  on  Meat 
Inspection. 


WILLIAMS.     "Principles  and  Practice  of   Veterinary 
Medicine."    New   author's   edition,  entirely  revised 
and   illustrated   with   numerous  plain  and  colored 
plates.  By  W.  Williams,  M.B.O.V.S. 
8vo.,  «loth 6  00 


—  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Veterinary  Surgery."    New 

author's  edition,     entirely  revised   and    illustrated 
with   numerous   plain   and    colored  plates.    By  W. 
Williams,  M.K.C.V.S. 
8vo,  eloth 6  00 


(•)  WILLIAMS  -  PFEIFFER.  "  A  Course  of  Surgical 
Operations  for  Veterinary  Students  and  Practi- 
tioners." By  W.  Pfeiffer  and  W.  L.  Williams,  V.S. 
With  42  illustrations,  12mo,  cloth 1  25 

See  also  "Pfei/er- Williams." 


I 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA   LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


, 


30m-6,'14 


wff 


.10 1839.  Jk 


